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1. Greek Classical Literature

    Rich classical literature, for the sake of clarity, has been divided for the purposes of this analysis into six groups: epic, lyric, drama, rhetoric, philosophy and historiography. From each of them we have chosen representative authors as it was impossible to analyse all the Greek literature preserved to these times. The criterion for selecting authors was the frequency with which they used the terminology which pertains to the context of either exaltation or height. The statistics on particular authors and terms used by them were taken from an extremely helpful initiative undertaken by scientists and made available on the Internet at www.perseus.tufts.edu.

    For our purposes, we have chosen Homer, Hesiod and Apollonius of Rhodes as the representatives of the epic genre. Lyric is represented by Pindar, Callimachus and Theocritus. From among the dramatists, we have selected the works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and Aristophanes. The rhetors are represented by Lysias, Isocrates, Isaeus, Aeschines and Demosthenes. Plato and Aristotle have an indispensable place in the history of philosophy. We also took their works into account. Historiography is represented by Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon and Polybius.

    In the works of the chosen authors we could find the following terms from the scope we are interested in: τὸ ὕψος (23 times), ὑψηλός (221 times), ὕψιστος (13 times), ὑψόω (13 times), ὑψοῦ (1 time), ὑψόθεν (36 times), ἀναβαίνω (387 times), ἀναιρέω (482 times), ἀναλαμβάνω (292 times), ἀνίστημι (483 times), ἡ ἀνάστασις (15 times), ἐγείρω (215 times), ἡ ἔγερσις (2 times), ἄνω (395 times), ἄνωθεν (118 times) and ἐπαίρω (157 times).

    When discussing individual authors, we first give their short biography or characteristics. Then we quote the titles of their works, and at the end we enumerate the terminology they use, referring to height and exaltation. The terms are grouped according to the following key: those with the root ὕψο and those with the prefix ἀνα or the root ἀνω and cognates. At the end of the analysis of individual authors and groups, we try to give a brief description of the concepts that refer to height or exaltation in a religious and moral sense.

    The authors in this literary genre were prolific. Epic works were created from the beginning of Greek literature (Homer, 8th century BC) to its decline (Nonnus of Panopolis, 5th century AD). And even the decline in ancient literature did not mean the end of this genre in Greek, for the Byzantine literature continued the tradition of the heroic or mythological epic.1 From among such abundant epic works we had to choose the most representative authors and works. Our search will naturally begin with the father of the lyrical epic, Homer. Then we will analyse the works of Hesiod preserved to these times. Finally, we will present a representative of the Hellenistic period: Apollonius of Rhodes. Such a selection of analysed works and authors seems to be the most appropriate in terms of the number of preserved works and the time in which they were created.2

    1.1.1 Homer

    Homer is an author known since antiquity, but curiously enough, we are not capable of determining the exact period within which he created his works. Scientists’ opinions vary to a large extent; some even question his existence.3 He is believed to have authored two epic poems The Iliad4 and The Odyssey5. It is commonly accepted that the Iliad is an earlier work created at the turn of the 9th and 8th centuries, or even in the middle of the 8th century BC. The Odyssey was probably written half a century later, i.e. in the middle or at the end of the 8th century BC.6 Another poem attributed to Homer is a parody of the heroic epic The Battle of Frogs and Mice and a collection of Hymns to the Gods .7

    The group of terms with the root ὑψο is represented by the verb ὑψόω (1 time), the adjective ὑψηλός (64 times) and the adverbs ὑψοῦ (10 times) and ὑψόθεν (9 times). However, no examples of the noun τὸ ὕψος can be observed. From the group of the ἀνα-prefixed terms or with the root ἀνω and cognates, Homer’s works include: ἀναβαίνω (44 times), ἀναιρέω (17 times), ἀνίστημι (82 times), ἐγείρω (63 times), ἄνω (2 times).

    1.1.1.1 ὑψόω

    This verb is only encountered once in a literal sense.8

    1.1.1.2 ὑψηλός

    The adjective ὑψηλός was used much more often by Homer, both in The Iliad , The Odyssey and Hymns; more than 60 times in total. Despite this frequency, no great scope of meaning can be assigned to this term. Usually it was used by this author as a modifier.9 Only once this adjective was used in the function of a predicative, in combination with the verb τίθημι.10

    Thus, we do not observe too wide a range of meanings of the term ὑψηλός.11 Only idiomatic expressions may attract attention: a) ὁ δόμος ὑψηλός (singular) or οἱ δόμοι ὑψηλοί (plural) in the sense of ‘a big, wonderful house’ that is, ‘a palace’ or ‘palace chamber’;12 αἱ πύλαι ὑψηλαί (always in plural), which literally means ‘high door wings’ but in this form means ‘gate’ or ‘city gate’.13

    1.1.1.3 ὑψοῦ

    An adverb that in Homer’s works functions as an adverbial of place14 and always modifies the verb.15

    Particularly noteworthy among these texts is the passage in which Zeus (literally ‘God-shaking-lands’) sits (ἧμαι) high (Iliad 13.12). This gives rise to a certain idea of the distinctiveness of the position of gods and people. Zeus is high (ὑψοῦ), above the ground, and people are waging wars down, right on the ground.

    1.1.1.4 ὑψόθεν

    As in the previous case, the adverb in question functions as an adverbial of place, in the sense: ‘high’ or ‘from high’ and also always modifies the verb.16

    An interesting use of the adverb can be found in The Odyssey 20.104, where the phrase ὑψότεν ἑκ νεφέων is parallel to ἁπ’ αἰγληντος Ὀλύμπου. Both phrases modify the verb ἐβρόντησεν. Thus the ‘sound of thunder’ is sent by Zeus “from Olympus, from clouds, from above”.

    This use of ὑψόθεν leads us to the second group of texts in which this adverb refers to the actions of gods, or rather to the verbs with which their actions are described. Zeus thundered (βρόντησε) from on high (Iliad 20.57); he sent (προέηκε) two eagles from on high, from the top of the mountain (Odyssey 2.147); Athena soared (ἀνέσχεν) high under the ceiling (Odyssey 22.298); Ares is the one who sends (καταστίλβων) light (Hymn to Ares (7).10).

    1.1.1.5 ἀναβαίνω

    The word was used by Homer in different modes (indicativus – see e.g. Odyssey 6.29, coniunctivus – see e.g. Odyssey 2.358, optativus – see e.g. Odyssey 12.77, infinitivus – see e.g. Odyssey 1.210, participium – see e.g. Iliad 10.493), tenses (present – see e.g. Odyssey 4.473, imperfectum – see e.g. Odyssey 3.483, aorist – see e.g. Iliad 1.497 etc.), voices (active – see e.g. Odyssey 22.142, reflexive – see e.g. Odyssey 23.1), persons and genders. Usually it stands for an upward movement or ‘ascending’ of gods (see e.g. Iliad 1.497), humans (see e.g. Odyssey ) or animals (see e.g. Iliad 10.493).

    The gods usually go to Olympus. Tethys rose (ἀνέβη) with morning fogs to reach Olympus (Ὀλύμπον), into a huge sky (Iliad 1.497). Zeus went (ἀναβάς) to rest close to Hera (παρὰ […] Ἥρη), the goddess with the golden throne (Iliad 1.611), and to other places as well. Sleep (Ὕπνος) climbed (ἀναβάς) a fir (εἰς ἐλάτην), which grew on Ida (Iliad 14.287). Hermes (Ἑρμῆς) entered (ἀναβάς) Polymele’s bedroom (εἰς ὑπερῷ’) and shared his bed with her (Iliad 16.184).

    People board the ship (Iliad 1.312, Odyssey 1.210; 3.157; 4.842; 9.177; 9.562; 11.637; 12.145; 12.293; 12.401; 13.285; 14.252; 15.209; 15.219; 15.474; 15.548), the chariot (Iliad 16.657; 22.399; Odyssey 3.483), climb the top (Odyssey 5.470; 12.77), the dry land (Odyssey 14.353), the armoury (Odyssey 22.132; 22.142), or depart at all (Odyssey 4.473). The woman, on the other hand, goes into her upper chambers, that is, into her bedroom (Odyssey 1.362; 2.358; 4.751; 4.760; 17.49; 18.302; 19.600; 19.602; 21.356; 22.428; 23.1; 23.364). To these categories the idiomatic phrase φάτις ἀνθρώπους ἀναβαίνει ἐσθλή (Odyssey 6.29) cannot be included as it means a good news in a general sense that comes out and spreads among people.

    Animals, specifically horses (ἵπποι)17 can be afraid of trampling (ἀναβαίνοντες) the bodies of those killed (νεκροῖς) in combat (Iliad 10.493).

    From the aforementioned analyses one can conclude that only texts that refer to the actions of gods can suggest some metaphorical elements. On seeing them moving up, we have the impression that Olympus (by the way, a mountain) is outside the sphere of human existence. However, this is a rather weak argumentation, because it is not the only place where the gods enter. They may also climb a tree (cf. Iliad 14.287) or creep secretly into a woman’s bedroom (cf. Iliad 16.184). Thus entering the space of dwelling of the gods (Olympus) is not the only action of this kind.

    1.1.1.6 ἀναιρέω

    The verb is not as often used as that previously discussed, but it is also used by Homer in various modes (indicativus – see e.g. Iliad 13.296, coniunctivus – see e.g. Iliad 16.8, optativus – see e.g. Odyssey 18.357, infinitivus – see e.g. Hymn to Demeter (5).283, participium – see e.g. Iliad 1.301), tenses (futurum – see e.g. Odyssey 21.261, aorist – see e.g. Iliad 2.410), voices (active – see e.g. Iliad 23.551, reflexive – see e.g. Iliad 1.449), persons and genders. Usually it stands for ‘lifting/raising’ something up, but the meaning has at least a few variants, depending on what is being lifted. However, the subject of this action is always a person or people.

    Usually something or someone is ‘raised, lifted up’18 in the physical sense. In this sense, an offering can be ‘lifted in a sacrificial gesture’. In this way both Danae (Iliad 1.449) and the Argives (Iliad 2.410) raised (ἀνέλοντο) the sacrificial barley (οὐλοχύτας). Nestor’s sons lifted (ἀνελόντες) the killed cow (βοός) above the ground in the sacrificial gesture (Odyssey 3.453). Sometimes it also acquires the meaning of physical ‘taking out, taking something away’.19

    Several times ἀναιρέω has the meaning of receiving a prize (τὸ ἀέθλιον). Achilles says to Odysseus/Ulysses and Ajax: “And the prize will be taken (ἀνελόντυες) by both of them” (Iliad 23.736). Likewise, “all Achaean shouted out to stop the fight, giving (ἀνελέσθαι) the prize to both”, to Diomed and Ajax (Iliad 23.823). Telemachus, fighting on behalf of his father, Odysseus, hopes to take (ἀνελέσθαι) the prize back, that is to win (Odyssey 21.117).

    This verb is once part of an idiomatic phrase. Eurycleia addresses Telemachus with the following words: ἐπιφροσύνας ἀνέλοιο (Odyssey 19.22), which can be translated literally, ‘you want to raise prudence’ or ‘you take up prudence’.

    To summarize Homer’s use of the verb ἀναιρέω, two meanings seem particularly interesting for this topic. The first one: ‘lifting something up in a sacrificial gesture’, and the second: ‘taking back the prize’, the goal of a combat.

    1.1.1.7 ἀνίστημι

    This word Homer used quite often (82 times). It occurs in its texts in different modes (indicativus – see e.g. Iliad 1.68, coniunctivus – see e.g. Iliad 7.94, optativus – see e.g. Iliad 1.191, imperativus – see e.g. Iliad 10.176, infinitivus – see e.g. Iliad 2.694, participium – see e.g. Iliad 1.387), tenses (praesentis – see e.g. Iliad 9.52, imperfectum – see e.g. Iliad 7.94, futurum – see e.g. Iliad 2.694, aorist – see e.g. Iliad 1.305), voices (active – see e.g. Iliad 1.533, reflexive – see e.g. Iliad 21.56), persons and genders. It usually means ‘rising up, raising’ someone from some place. However, we observe several meanings of this verb, depending on the place or situation in which the action occurs.

    The vast majority of the people Homer mentioned in his poems get up or rise from their previous position.20

    There is another interesting shade of meaning to this verb: ‘incitement, arousal to fight’.21

    In far fewer texts we read about those who get up, rise from sleep. In these cases this verb means: ‘wake up’, both in the sense of ‘waking somebody up’ (a transitive verb) as well as ‘waking oneself up’ (a reflexive verb). For example: Menelaus went to wake up (ἀνστήσων) Agamemnon (Iliad 10.32); Agamemnon went to wake up (ἀνστήμεναι) Nestor (Iliad 10.55); Odysseus was instructed to wake up (ἄνστησον) Phyleus (Iliad 10.176); Diomedes woke up (ἀναστήσας) Achaean (Iliad 10.179); Priam woke up (ἀνίστη) a herald (Iliad 24.689). The reflexive form is used in the following cases: Achilles ἀνέστη woke up (Iliad 18.305); ἀνστάς Menelaus (Odyssey 15.58); ἀνστάς Eteoneus (Odyssey 15.96); ἀνίστατο Telemachus (Odyssey 20.124).

    Three times Homer made use of the verb ἀνίστημι to describe the raising of someone from the dead. Upon seeing Lycaon, whom Achilles believed he had sentenced to death before, Achilles said: “Obviously, the Trojans of great souls killed by me will rise again (ἀναστήσονται) from the misty darkness of the underworld […]” (Iliad 21.56). Even more eloquent is another text in which Achilles speaks to Priam: “[…] for you cannot do anything for your son with despair, you cannot resurrect the dead with tears (ἀνστήσεις); you will bring some other evil instead” (Iliad 24.551). Another example: Hecuba lamented the fate of Patroclus, friend of Achilles, whom Hector killed: “[…] but the friend you killed you did not raise from the dead with this act (ἀνέστησεν)” (Iliad 24.756). Therefore, we can conclude that Homer knew the idea of bringing a dead man back to life. However, he did not associate it with any particular intervention of the gods. He merely suggested to the reader the possibility of this fact.

    1.1.1.8 ἐγείρω

    This verb was frequently used (63 times) by Homer. Similarly to the previous example, it can be seen in various modes (indicativus – see e.g. Iliad 7.434, coniunctivus – see e.g. Iliad 5.413, optativus – see e.g. Iliad 10.166, imperativus – see e.g. Iliad 7.371, infinitivus – see e.g. Iliad 5.510, participium – see e.g. Odyseja 10.50), tenses (praesentis – see e.g. Iliad 24.344, imperfectum – see e.g. Iliad 2.52, perfectum – see e.g. Iliad 10.67, plusquamperfectum – see e.g. Iliad 10.419, aorist – see e.g. Iliad 4.352), voices (active – see e.g. Iliad 5.208, reflexive – see e.g. Iliad 2.41, passive – see e.g. Iliad 1.57), persons and genders.

    We meet this verb in four slightly different forms: a) transitive – ‘to wake up, incite (e.g. to fight)’, and in the passive voice: ‘to be assembled’; b) intransitive – ‘to stand up’ and in perfectum: ‘to keep watch, be vigilant’; c) the reflexive form can also be found ‘to wake oneself up, come around’.

    The verb ἐγείρω meaning ‘to wake up’ was used in the following texts: Iliad 5.413; 10.108; 10.146; 10.166; 10.511; 17.261 23.234; 24.344; Odyssey 5.48; 6.48; 15.44; 24.4. In these texts we find no metaphorical or other meaning except for ‘awakening someone from a dream’. In a metaphorical sense, in Homer’s works the same form expresses ‘arousal, incitement to fight’. In that sense, we encounter this verb in: Iliad 5.208; 5.496; 5.510; 5.517; 6.105; 11.213; 13.58; 13.357; 13.778; 15.232; 15.242; 15.567; 15.594; 15.603; 17.544; 17.552; 20.31; 24.164. The phrase ἐγείρομεν ὀξύν Ἄρηα is particularly interesting in this respect, because it literally means “we will awaken the fierce Ares”, that is, “we will incite the fervour to war”, whose god was Ares. The phrase can be found in: Iliad 2.440; 4.352; 8.531; 18.304; 19.237.

    Another transitive form is to ‘to summon, gather somebody’. And in that sense, ἐγείρω appears in: Iliad 1.57; 24.790; Odyssey 2.9; 24.421. Its reflexive equivalent is ‘to gather, come together’: Iliad 2.52; 2.444; 7.434; 17.222; 24.789; Odyssey 2.8; 2.28; 2.41; 20.100. The particular personal form of this verb is perfectum, which means ‘to watch out, to be vigilant’ (See Iliad 7.371; 10.67; 10.419; 18.299).

    Of particular interest are the following personal forms of this verb, both in the declarative and in the imperative mode, which mean ‘[somebody] awakens’ (see Iliad 2.41; 15.4; Odyssey 6.113; 6.117; 10.50; 13.187; 15.8) and ‘awake!’ (see Iliad 10.159; Odyssey 15.46; 23.5) respectively. However, none of them have a metaphorical meaning.

    Thus we do not find in Homer’s texts any particular meaning of the verb ἐγείρω, which would indicate its meaning in the sense of exalting or raising someone from death to life. A further reminiscence of this can only be ‘to wake up somebody from sleep’, ‘to awake’ or ‘to ask somebody to wake up’.

    1.1.1.9 ἄνω

    An adverb used by Homer only twice and without any metaphorical meaning. In both cases, it functions as an adverbial of place. Achilles recalled that once Priam found his happiness living on (ἄνω) Lesbos Macaros (Iliad 24.544). When Odysseus reached Hades, he sees Sisyphus pushing a huge lump of rock to (ἄνω) the top of the mountain (Odyssey 11.596).

    Summary

    The above observations lead us to the conclusion that Homer in his works, using the verb ὑψόω and the adjective ὑψηλός, did not assign them a metaphorical meaning that would have any reference to the subject of this investigations. It is slightly different with the use of the adverbs ὑψοῦ and ὑψόθεν and the verb ἀναβαίνω. Here we notice a reference to the action of gods ‘from on high’ or their ‘ascent’ to Olympus, which suggests placing their action above the space of people. In Greek mythology, Olympus was such a place. With regard to the verb ἀναιρέω, two of its meanings seem interesting for this topic: ‘to lift something in a sacrificial gesture’ and ‘to receive a prize’, which is the goal in combat. And the verbs ἀνίστημι and ἐγείρω provide us with the idea of ‘awakening’ from sleep, which, however, has an indirect reference to the subject in question.

    1.1.2 Hesiod

    An author who lived at the turn of the 8th and 7th centuries BC. Considered to be the most outstanding (after Homer) representative of epic poetry of the archaic period.22 His work consists of three epic poems: Birth of the Gods , Works and Days and Shield of Heracles .23 However, the authorship of the latter work is sometimes questioned.24

    In Hesiod’s works, from the group of terms with the root ὑψο we find the adjective ὑψηλός (5 times) and the adverbs ὑψόθεν (2 times) and ὑψοῦ (1 time). However, from the group of terms with the prefix ἀνα or the root ἀνω or cognates, we can find: ἀναιρέω (2 times), ἀνίστημι (1 time) and ἐγείρω (6 times).

    1.1.2.1 ὑψηλός

    In the poems by Hesiod, this adjective refers to inanimate things and is always used as a modifier – usually it modifies the noun,25 only once a proper name.26 However, Hesiod did not attribute any metaphorical meaning to the term in question. It simply means the physical height of the object described.

    1.1.2.2 ὑψόθεν and ὑψοῦ

    As in Homer’s texts discussed earlier, these adverbs function as adverbials of place and also modify only the verb.27 It is impossible to work out any figurative meaning of these adverbs in the works of Hesiod. All refer to the physical category of height.

    1.1.2.3 ἀναιρέω

    The term appears twice in Hesiod’s works; in both cases in the context of sacrifice, although once it means Zeus’s act of raising the bovine fat from the bones offered cunningly by Prometheus: χερσὶ δ’ὅ γ’ ἀμφοτέρῃσιν ἀνείλετο λεθκόν ἄλειφαρ (Birth of the Gods 553). In the second text, Hesiod warns against drinking and bathing in water from a vessel ‘which was not ordained’: μηδ’ ἀπὸ χυτροπόδων ἀνεπιρρέκτων ἀνελόντα ἔσθειν μηδὲ λόεσθαι (Works and Days 748). It would literally be about commanding not to lift (μηδ’[…] ἀνελόντα) something in order to eat, or to wash oneself from a boiler that was not dedicated to the gods (ἀπὸ χυτροπόδων ἀνεπιρρέκτων). We can conclude that Hesiod uses this verb in the context of sacrifices to the gods. But it only has an indirect relationship with them.

    1.1.2.4 ἀνίστημι

    This verb is only once encountered in the works of Hesiod and in a literal sense. The author recommends: ὄρθρου ἀνιστάμενος, ἵνα τοι βίος ἄρκοις εἴη (Works and Days 577).28 But there is no figurative meaning here – it refers to waking up, getting up from sleep.

    1.1.2.5 ἐγείρω

    This term was used much more often by this author. Literally it stands for ‘awakening someone from sleep’ (Works and Days 573), and figuratively it means ‘awakening the enthusiasm to work’ (Works and Days 20), ‘awakening, inciting to a fight’ (Birth of the Gods 666; 713; Shield 176) or ‘gathering of the people’ (Shield 475). Apart from the first meaning (‘awakening from sleep’), this verb has no significant meaning from this perspective. This is because other activities described by it do not have any religious meaning or any deeper metaphorical sense. Only ‘rising from sleep’ can indicate here the activity of lifting a person up from the state of unconsciousness, although Hesiod only assigns a literal meaning to it.

    Summary

    The research so far has shown that in Hesiod’s works only three concepts can be relevant to the subject we are discussing. In the context of offering sacrifices to the gods, we come across the verb ἀναιρέω which, however, does not refer to the very act of offering sacrifices but to the act of raising the offering dedicated to gods. Another two verbs (ἀνίστημι and ἐγείρω) provide the context of getting up, awakening from sleep.

    1.1.3 Apollonius of Rhodes

    He lived in the 3rd century BC. (from around 295 to around 215). He was born in Alexandria, although he owes his predicate “of Rhodes” to his long stay on this island. He was head of the Library of Alexandria after Zenodotus, and before Eratosthenes.29 His writings include Against Zenodotus and other works on Archilochus, Hesiod and Antimachus of Colophon (not preserved). He was also the author of lost poems about the founding of Alexandria, Kaunos, Knidos, Naucratis and Rhodes and the poem Κανόβος. His greatest surviving work is the poem about Argonauts – Argonautica .30

    In this last work,31 Apollonius rarely used terms of interest for us. From the first group (with the root ὑψο), there are two adjectives: ὑψηλός (1 time), ὕψιστος (1 time) and two adverbs: ὑψοῦ (9 times), ὑψόθεν (5 times). The second group (with the prefix ἀνα or the root ἀνω and cognates) includes: ἀνίστημι (6 times), ἐγείρω (9 times), ἄνω (2 times) and ἄνωθην (1 time).

    1.1.3.1 ὑψηλός

    This adjective can be found only once as a modifier with which the mountains are described: ὀρέων […] ὑψηλῶν (2.977). It is difficult to see any figurative meaning of this adjective here.

    1.1.3.2 ὕψιστος

    Apollonius made once use of this adjective in its superlative form, also in the function of a modifier, to describe the highest tower – the seat of the king: ἐν ὑψίστω βασιλεὺς μόσσονι (2.1026). Perhaps this was to emphasise the king’s supreme position, in relation to his subjects and guests.

    1.1.3.3 ὑψοῦ

    Used nine times by Apollonius, this adverb usually collocates with the verbs of movement: ἀείρω (3.221; 4.154), φορέω (2.587), ἀνέχω (3.257), ἵημι (4.80). The grapevine blooms, growing high up (ἀειρόμεναι) (3.221). The snake, lifting high up (ἀείρας) its terrifying head, burns with anger (4.154). Jason freed (ἧκεν) his legs from the deck, from a high position (4.80), i.e. he went ashore. The ship was floating (πεφόρητο) high above the rocks (2.587). Chalciope raised her hands high (ἀνέσχεθεν) (3.257).

    In combination with a verb of this kind, we also find this adverb in 3.368. Here, however, it has a slightly different meaning: ὑψοῦ δὲ χόλῳ φρένες ἠερέθοντο. Literally translating, it stands for “the entrails/heart (of Aeetes) being raised high with anger”. So it would be an elaborate metaphor of Aeetes’ anger.

    In a few other cases, we come across ὑψοῦ as an adverbial of place, but without using a verb that describes a certain action. From above (ὑψοῦ), from the bough of Hera the advice (3.931) is announced. Argonauts sail from higher regions (ὑψοῦ), from the highest island (4.315). Rocks (rise) high (ὑψοῦ) (above the surrounding) reefs (4.941).

    1.1.3.4 ὑψόθεν

    Another adverb used by Apollonius. In all five cases of its use, it collocates with the verbs of movement: ἐμπλήσσω, ἵζω, φοβέω, ἐξανέχω, ἀνατίθημι. From above, a fierce storm (ἐπλήξασα) is coming (1.1203). A virgin, exposed to the sunlight (ἐξανέχουσαν) from above, is caught (4.168). The unshaken strength of untiring shoulders were imposed (ἀνθέμενοι) from high (4.1376).

    In two cases, on the other hand, we notice a construction ὑψόθεν + verb + noun (proper name) in Genitive. Then this adverb means ‘over, above’. Tyndareus would sit (εἵσομαι) above (ὑψόθεν) the highest point (ἄκρης) of the high temple (2.806). The flying dove (πεφοβημένη) above (ὑψόθεν) Aisonides (Αἰσονίδεω) falls to his lap (3.542).

    1.1.3.5 ἀνίστημι

    The noun has essentially a literal meaning in this poem: ‘raise something’,32 ‘rise, get up’33 or ‘build, perform’.34 In the latter group, the passage in which Orpheus speaks about the construction of the altar dedicated to Apollo: βωμὸν ἀναστήσαντες (2.689) is noteworthy. Besides, in one text, this verb has a figurative meaning: ‘to stimulate, incite’. This is a passage in which the argonauts are called to ‘encourage’ one another (ἄνστησον δ’ ἑτάρους) in the difficult situation they found themselves in in Libya (4.1325).

    1.1.3.6 ἐγείρω

    Used as rarely as the verb above, its meaning is also similar: ‘get up, wake up’,35 ‘rise’ (in relation to a person36 and things37), to ‘provoke the fight’.38

    1.1.3.7 ἄνω

    The adverb, in the work of Apollonius, is always combined with the verbs of movement: προτύπτω (‘rush forward’) and τείνω (‘pull’); and means ‘upwards’ (3.1397) or ‘towards the north, northbound’ (4.1581). It has no metaphorical meaning but only literal.

    1.1.3.8 ἄνωθην

    It also collocates with the verb of movement: κατάγω (‘bring down’), and has a basic literal meaning: ‘from above’.

    Summary

    As can be easily concluded from the findings, the terminology describing the category of height in the work by Apollonius of Rhodes is not very rich. Literal meaning prevails. this attention is drawn to the text that refers to the construction (ἀνίστημι) of the altar dedicated to Apollo. This term seems to be a specific technical term for the erection of a place of worship. Besides, only in one text can we find a figurative sense of moral character. It is a metaphor for human anger: “a heart high (ὑψοῦ) raised with anger” (Argonautica 3.368).

    ***

    Undoubtedly, the epic work of prolific Greek classical authors resulted in the development of several concepts describing the category of height in a religious or moral sense. Only Homer describes the space that belongs to gods. He avoids direct descriptions, but uses the adverbs of place ὑψοῦ and ὑψόθεν: ‘high’, ‘from on high’. This is how the place where Zeus sits was presented (ὑψοῦ; Iliad 13.12). It is from there that the sound of thunder sent by the same god is heard (ὑψόθεν; Iliad 20.57; Odyssey 20.104). also two eagles sent by Zeus come from above (ὑψόθεν; Odyssey 2.147). Similarly, other gods act from the space above the earth, from above (ὑψόθεν): Athena soared high under the ceiling (Odyssey 22.298), and Ares is the one who sends light from on high (Hymn to Ares (7).10). This sphere of action of the gods was also rendered by the verb ἀναβαίνω, which literally expresses the movement from bottom to top: ‘climb, enter’. In Homer’s works the gods usually enter Olympus (Ὀλύμπον).39 Tethys rose (ἀνέβη) with morning fog to Olympus, into the vast heaven (Iliad 1.497). Zeus went (ἀναβάς) to rest with Hera, the goddess on the golden throne (Iliad 1.611).

    Alongside these actions of the gods, the great epic authors presented discreetly in their works the actions taken by people, how they got in contact with gods through the sacrifices offered to them. Primarily the contact is established by erecting (ἀνίστημι) the altar as Apollonius of Rhodes related, quoting Orpheus’ words on the construction of the altar to Apollo: βωμόν ἀναστήσαντες (Argonautica 2.689). Apart from the construction of the altar, the offering, or rather the act of raising the offering (ἀναιρέω) in a sacrificial gesture, is of great importance. Such activities were described by Homer when he showed the Danae (Iliad 1.449) and Argives (Iliad 2.410) raising (ἀνέλοντο) the sacrificial barley, and Nestor’s sons lifting (ἀνελόντες) the killed cow above the ground in a sacrificial gesture (Odyssey 3.453). In the works of Hesiod, this verb also has a reference to sacrifices made to the gods, though not in such a direct way as Homer did. There, it does not mean an act of sacrifice, but only the act of raising of what was dedicated to the gods (see Birth of the Gods 553; Work and Days 748).

    An important element about exaltation and the act of raising in Homer’s works is the conviction about the possibility of resurrecting the deceased. This conviction is clearly seen in the text of The Iliad , in which the author three times puts words in the protagonists’ mouths about ‘resurrection’ (ἀνίστημι) of the Trojans (Iliad 21.56), Hector (Iliad 24.551) and Patroclus (Iliad 24.756). From these statements we can conclude that Homer was familiar with the idea of bringing the dead back to life. This did not, however, involve any particular intervention by the gods. He only suggested a theoretical possibility of this fact.

    For the sake of completeness, there are two more meanings in the category of height, which are rendered by Greek epic writers. The first is the verb ἀναιρέω used by Homer in the sense of receiving the prize (Iliad 23.736; 23.823; Odyssey 21.117). The second can be found in the work by Apollonius of Rhodes, namely, the adverb ὑψοῦ used as an elaborate metaphor of anger – “the entrails/heart (of Aeetes) being raised high with anger” (Argonautica 3.368).

    The history of lyric is almost as long as that of the epic. Lyric, or rather poetry, dates back to the times of Hesiod (7th century BC). “The contemporary concept of lyric is quite different from the Greek one, since the term is now used in a broad sense to denote also such genres as elegiac, iambic and choral poetry, while the Greeks only began to use the term lyriké (implicitly: poiesis – poetry) alongside the earlier melikos, exclusively for songs performed to the accompaniment of the lyre, with text and music forming an inseparable whole. The element that distinguished lyric – in the broad sense – from drama and epic was music as well as dance. While epic works were recited to the accompaniment of music, and in drama only the sung parts were based on music, lyric never lost its connection with music, although such genres as elegiac or iambic poetry sought to break with music quite early”.40

    Throughout a dozen centuries of composing lyrical works,41 many literary types of this genre were developed. One can include here: elegiac, iambic poetry, fable, choral lyric, ode, melikos, monody, epigram, bucolic poetry, hymn. It would be impossible to present and at least briefly describe representatives of all these types; therefore, we selected three, from different periods: Pindar – author of the hymns also called odes (VI/V century BC), Callimachus – author of epigrams and hymns (IV/III century BC) and Theocritus – author of idylls (IV/III c. BC).

    1.2.1 Pindar

    An aristocrat, a witness to the Persian wars and the subsequent blossoming of Athenian democracy. He lived from about 520 to about 442 after Chr. Despite an overt aversion to Athens (he won the praise of only one Athenian, the winner of the Nemean Games), he learned choral lyric and its technique in this city. Although Pindar wrote many more works (his works were published in seventeen volumes by Aristophanes of Byzantium at the turn of the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC), only the odes from the last volume have survived to these times,42 a total of fourty four songs in honour of the winners: fourteen Olympian songs, twelve Pythian songs, eleven Nemean songs and eight Isthmian songs.43

    In all these songs Pindar uses terms that are of interest to us (with the root ὑψο), but not in all grammatical forms. We only meet the adjectives ὑψηλός (6 times) and ὕψιστος (4 times) and the adverbs ὑψοῦ (2 times) and ὑψόθεν (2 times). There is no verb ὑψόω or noun τὸ ὕψος From the group of terms with the prefix ἀνα or the root ἀνω and cognates, in Pindar’s works we can find: ἀναβαίνω (5 times), ἀναιρέω (3 times), ἀνίστημι (1 time), ἄνω (1 time) and ἐγείρω (3 times).

    1.2.1.1 ὑψηλός

    In the use of this term we easily notice a certain variety. It usually functions as a modifier, but the nouns that are modified, in most cases, are abstract nouns: great success (ὄλβον ὑψηλόν; O.2.24; cf. ‘prosperity’s heights’), great perfection (ὑψηλᾶν ἀρετᾶν, O.5.1; cf. ‘high deeds’; ὑψηλᾶις ἀρετᾶις, I.5.50), great fame κλέος […] ὑψηλόν, P.3.111). Only once this adjective modifies a noun denoting a real object, but then the adjective is in the superlative form: ‘greatest games’ (ὑψηλοτάτων ἀέθλων, O.4.3). We find this term once again as a noun and it stands for Kronos’ ‘steep rock’: δ’ ὑψηλοῖο […] Κρονίου (O.6.64).

    1.2.1.2 ὕψιστος

    With this adjective, also in the form of a modifier, Pindar describes both the noun that denotes a material thing – ‘highest crown’ (στέφανον ὕψιστον, P.1.100) as well as an abstract term – ‘greatest profit’ (κέρδος ὕψιστον, I.1.51).

    In the case of this adjective we can also observe the it is used in a similar way the aforementioned Greek authors did. This is how Zeus is described: Διός ὕψιστον (N.1.60), Ζηνὸς ὑψίστου (N.11.2). Thus a certain attribute of Zeus seems to be formed, and his rank among the deities of Olympus as well as his superiority to humans is emphasised.

    1.2.1.3 ὑψόθεν

    It was used by Pindar as an adverbial of place to describe that a wreath was set ‘above a man’s brow’: ὑψόθεν […] βαλῃ (O.3.12). In another place men’s slinking down is described using this adverb: δ’ ἕμπετες ὑψόθεν (P.8.85). So we only notice a literal meaning of this term without any particular use or metaphorical meaning.

    1.2.1.4 ὑψοῦ

    In this case, the situation is somewhat different. This adverb functions as an adverbial (modifying the verb), but its meaning is figurative. Pindar wrote: ὑψοῦ […] πατεῖν (O.1.115). Which literally means ‘walk on high’ but it is probably about ‘walk proudly, strut’. A similar situation occurred when he wrote: “they extol and glorify the state of the Thessalians”: ὑψοῦ φέροντι νόμον Θεσσαλῶν (P.10.70). It is probably about the ‘exaltation’ of Thessalian law. We can see then the double meaning of this adverb. On the one hand, it means ‘pride’, ‘glory’, on the other hand, ‘elevation’, ‘exaltation’.

    1.2.1.5 ἀναβαίνω

    Pindar did use this verb, but only in the literal sense of ‘going up’: to the top (O.7.48), to the prow of a ship (P.2.62), to the chariot (N.9.4), to the wall (I.5.45); or ‘mounting’ (O.13.86). No examples with any figurative or religious meaning could be found.

    1.2.1.6 ἀναιρέω

    The situation is slightly more interesting with this verb. Although we meet its literal meaning in Pindar’s Odes,44we also see a metaphorical sense. The examples include that “it is impossible for one person successfully to attain complete happiness”: τυχεῖν δ’ ἕν’ ἀδύνατον εὐδαιμονίαν ἅπασαν ἀνελόμενον (N.7.56). It is probably about receiving the prize for winning the games in several disciples, which Pindar describes as impossible. Another Ode praises Arsinoe, who rescued Orestes by secretly saving him “from the violent hands and pain-laden treachery”: ἐκ δόλου τροφὸς ἄνελε δυσπενθέος (P.11.18). So we can see that ἀναιρέω in some contexts means “to receive, raise the received prize”, and in others, “to save” from oppression. Both of these meanings are noteworthy.

    1.2.1.7 ἀνίστημι

    In Pindar’s Odes, it is used only once (P.4.155), without any particular metaphorical meaning.

    1.2.1.8 ἄνω

    This adverb was also used by Pindar only once (O.12.6) and also in the sense of raising somebody physically, lifting up.

    1.2.1.9 ἐγείρω

    This verb can be found three times but in quite a wide range of meanings: once in the literal sense of “rousing” the lyre (N.10.21). Twice in a figurative sense. It was used to describe “awak[ing] […] a clear-sounding path of poetry”: ἔγειρ’ ἐπέων σφιν οἶμον λιγύν (O.9.47). Another time, also in the context of performing a song, it referred to the idea of “call[ing] up again the ancient fame of his ancestors”: ἐγεῖραι καὶ παλαιὰν δόξαν ἑῶν προγόνων (P.9.104).

    Summary

    Our research into the meanings of the terms in question revealed that Pindar essentially accentuates their literal meaning.45 This is the case with the use of ὑψηλός, which is an adjective that only attracts the reader’s attention as a modifier of abstract concepts such as ὁ ὄλβος – ‘prosperity’, ἡ ὰρετή – ‘perfection’ or τὸ κλέος – ‘fame’.

    A slightly different situation is observed in a group of terms that Pindar uses both literally and figuratively, also in a religious sense. This is how the adverb ὕψιστος is used, which describes a material thing (ὁ στέφανος – ‘crown, wreath’), an abstract thing (τὸ κέρδος – ‘profit’); it also referred to Zeus, whom Pindar called ‘highest’ (ὕψιστος, N.1.60; N.11.2). Similarly, in two meanings (literal and metaphorical) Pindar uses the verb ἀναιρέω. On the one hand, it stands for the physical lifting something up (P.9.61), but also salvation from oppression (P.11.18) and the “raising the received prize” (N.7.56). The verb ἐγείρω is used likewise. It means rousing the lyre (N.10.21) but also awaking “a clear-sounding path of poetry” (O.9.47), and the restoration of the glory of the ancestors (P.9.104).

    There is another term that this author uses only in a figurative sense. The adverb ὑψοῦ has two shades of meaning, translated as (a) greatness (O.1.115), (b) extoling, glorifying (P.10.70).

    1.2.2 Callimachus

    The poet and Greek scholar lived from about 310 to about 240 BC. He was born in Cyrene, North Africa. He came from an aristocratic, although impoverished family, which originated from Battus, the founder of Cyrene.46 In his early youth he came to Alexandria, where he initially earned his living as a teacher while writing short poems (epigrams). Around 270 BC the Egyptian King Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285–246 BC) was appointed to work in the Library of Alexandria.47 His scientific and literary activity is connected with this very city, although some scholars believe that he started writing in Cyrene (Claude Meillier, André Laronde).48

    According to historical data, Callimachus was an extremely prolific writer. He was to be the author of more than eight hundred books, including the monumental (in one hundred and twenty books) work of the Tables of Those Who Have Distinguished Themselves in Every Form of Culture and of What They Wrote . Only a few fragments of such works as Aetia , Iambi and Hecale survived to these times, but we have the whole sixty-three Epigramas and six hymns: To Zeus , To Apollo , To Artemis , To Delos , The Bath of Pallas , To Demeter .49

    In these preserved works of the Callimachus we can find the following terms with the root ὑψo: ὑψηλός (3 times) and ὑψόθεν (1 time). From the group with the prefix ἀνα or the root ἀνω and cognates, there occur: ἀνίστημι (3 times), ἐγείρω (2 times) and ἄνω (1 time).50

    1.2.2.1 ὑψηλός

    This adjective was always used by Callimachus as a modifier to describe a ‘high’ peak,51 wall52 or cape.53

    1.2.2.2 ὑψόθεν

    An adverb that appears only once in the preserved works of this author. It collocates with the verb αὐγάζω (‘to see clearly, to see’) and functions in a sentence in a literal sense as an adverbial of place: ‘from the clouds’.54

    1.2.2.3 ἀνίστημι

    The verb has a literal sense in the Callimachus sections: ‘get up’55 or ‘put up’.56 In the latter sense, one text is noteworthy that refers to “set[ing] up (ἀνίστημι) altars and do[ing] sacrifice”: ἀνεστήσαντο δὲ βωμούς ἱερὰ τε ῥέζουσι (hymn To Artemis (3).199). It would mean then “establishing” a place of cult, as the whole context suggests (cf. hymn To Artemis (3).197–203).

    1.2.2.4 ἐγείρω

    The literal meaning is: ‘to get up’,57 ‘to put up’,58 without any reference to the religious or moral contents.

    1.2.2.5 ἄνω

    An adverb used only once by this author in a literal sense. It functions in conjunction with the verb βάλλω (‘to throw’), as the adverbial of place.59

    Summary

    It is not difficult to notice that Callimachus was not very eager to use the terminology referring to height, and if he did, it is always in the literal sense. The only text that can have any meaning for this research contains the verb ἀνίστημι in the sense of setting up a place of worship (hymn To Artemis (3).199).

    1.2.3 Theocritus

    A poet considered to be the greatest creator of the Greek pastoral poems, idylls. He was born in Syracuse, Sicily, probably in the last years of the 4th century BC. His parents were from Kos. Probably that is why he left his hometown in his youth and went to this island. He spent most of his adult life there.60 Around 270, Theocritus asked for a protectorate from Ptolemy II, King of Egypt, who invited him to Alexandria. He probably stayed there for a few years and then returned to Kos. Undoubtedly he travelled through other cities and islands of the Aegean Sea; he certainly visited Miletus and his friend Nicias.61 We cannot determine with certainty whether in Alexandria Theocritus had contacts with the most outstanding poet and scholar of the time, Callimachus. However, contemporary scholars claim to have found some mutual allusions in the works of both poets. The further course of Theocritus’ life is shrouded in mystery. One of the reasons behind it is an almost complete lack of information in his works about his contemporary events. Only two works were addressed to the rulers, Hiero of Syracuse and Ptolemy Philadelphus, which allows the researchers to establish the timeframe for his life.62

    A man named Artemidorus, living in the 1st century BC, published Corpus Theocriteum, a collection of Theocritus’ works. It contains thirty epic works written in hexameter (except for the last three). Some of them are nowadays considered not to be authentic,63 but we will not discuss this problem here. The idylls (bucolics) in which Theocritus uses the terminology under investigation include: I. Thyrsis. A Goatherd , VIII. Pastorals II,64 X. The Two Workmen , XI. The Giant’s Wooing , XV. The Festival of Adonis , XVI. The Value of Song , XVII. The Praise of Ptolemy , XXI. Fishermen , XXII. Hymn to Dioskur , XXIV. The Infant Heracles , XXV. Heracles the Lion Slayer . In addition, twenty-four epigrams of various themes have been preserved under the name of Theocritus.65

    In these works, Theocritus rarely referred to the category of height or exaltation. From the first group (with the root ὑψo) we have: ὑψηλός (3 times), ὑψόθεν (3 times) and ὕψιστος (1 time). The second group (ἀνα-prefixed or with the root ἀνω and cognates) is represented by: ἀναβαίνω (1 time), ἀναιρέω (2 times), ἀνίστημι (6 times), ἐγείρω (3 times), ἄνω (1 time) and ἄνωθεν (4 times).

    1.2.3.1 ὑψηλός

    The adjective in Theocritus’ works has a literal meaning: ‘high’.66 In the hymn to Hiero, however, we can read: ὑψηλὸν δ’ Ἰέρωνι κλέος φορέοιεν ἀοιδοί (Idyll 16: The Value of Song 98). The idea is to acclaim (φορέοιεν) high (ὑψηλὸν) Hiero’s fame (κλέος) by the singers. This adjective thus takes on an abstract meaning – Hiero’s fame was acclaimed everywhere by singers. Although ὑψηλός undoubtedly has a metaphorical meaning here, it is of little importance for this discussion.

    1.2.3.2 ὕψιστος

    The adjective in its superlative form is used Theocritus in relation to Zeus. One of the heroes of the idyll with these words: διός γόνον ὑψίστοιο (Idyll XXV: Heracles the Lion Slayer 159) undoubtedly addresses a god who is ‘most high’ among others (ὕψιστος).

    1.2.3.3 ὑψόθεν

    In this author’s works it has only literal meaning: ‘from on high, from above’.67

    1.2.3.4 ἀναβαίνω

    A word used only once by Theocritus, but in a sense relevant to this research. Teiresias, summoned by Alcmena, speaks to her: τοῖς ἀνὴρ ὅδε μέλλει ἐς οὐρανον ἄστρα φέροντα ἀμβαίνειν τεὸς υἱός (Idylla 24: The Infant Heracles 80). The phrase ἐς οὐρανον ἀμβαίνειν means literally ‘scale the heaven’. From a further context, we learn that this is the space of Zeus’ existence in which Heracles must dwell (πεπρωμένον ἐν Διὸς οἰκεῖν; Idyll 24: The Infant Heracles 82) having accomplished twelve tasks. So in this text, ‘scale’ (ἀναβαίνω) the heaven means to include Heracles among its inhabitants, which is a kind of deification.

    1.2.3.5 ἀναιρέω

    This verb has a literal meaning in one case: ‘to raise, pick up’.68 In the next one, Theocritus used it to mean: ‘quench this feud’.69

    1.2.3.6 ἀνίστημι

    In principle, it has the literal meaning of ‘get up, rise’70 with one small variant of meaning: ‘raise’.71

    1.2.3.7 ἐγείρω

    Like the previous one, this verb has a literal meaning in Theocritus’ works: ‘wake up, get up’.72

    1.2.3.8 ἄνω

    This adverb was used once also in a literal sense: ‘up’.73

    1.2.3.9 ἄνωθεν

    An adverb used by Theocritus in a twofold literal sense: ‘from on high’74 or ‘from the origin’75 (place of origin) and ‘before’ (time expression).76

    Summary

    In Theocritus’ case the vocabulary describing the category of height was not numerous and it translated into an equally poor set of metaphorical religious meanings. The religious meaning could be noticed in two terms: ‘most high’ (ὕψιστος) among the gods is Zeus (Idyll XXV: Heracles the Lion Slayer 159); Heracles, on the other hand, ‘scaled’ (ἀναβαίνω) the heaven entering the sphere where gods dwelled (Idyll XXIV: The Infant Heracles 80).

    ***

    Quite extensive lyrical works of the authors we have chosen turned out not to be the source of equally rich terminology describing height and exaltation. However, each of the writers in question made his contribution to the research topic. The terms with which they describe the height and exaltation concern the gods, or in fact only Zeus, and man.

    The terms ὕψιστος i ἀναβαίνω are used in reference to gods. The first term is an adjective in the superlative form, by means of which both Pindar (N.1.60; 11.2) and Theocritus (Idyll 25: Heracles the Lion Slayer 159) described the position Zeus held among other deities. It does not seem to be just an attribute of the ‘most high’ god compared to other ‘inhabitants’ of Olympus. One can suppose that it is used to emphasize superiority over people. This heavenly position of the deities is also available to the mortal. He must, like Heracles, ‘scale’ (ἀναβαίνειν) the heaven, the dwelling of Zeus (Theocritus, Idyll 24: The Infant Heracles 82).

    Man can enter into a relationship with a deity here on earth by making sacrifices. This must be done in the right place, where an altar is set up (ἀνίστημι) as Callimachus explained in the hymn To Artemis (3).199. Man also experiences various different moments of exaltation in life. Sometimes man can receive (ἀνελόμενον) a reward (Pindar, N.7.56) or be saved (ἄνελε) from some kind of oppression (Pindar, O.11.18). Both situations are described with the verb ἀναιρέω. Another verb (ἐγείρω) is used by Pindar to describe the reality that people struggle to restore (ὲγεῖραι), namely the former glory of their ancestors (P.9.104).

    The human existence is marked not only by positive aspects of exaltation: ὑψοῦ as ‘extolling, exaltation’ (Pindar, O.10.70). Its negative, or rather pejorative, aspect is equally noticeable: ὑψοῦ as ‘haughtiness, conceit’ (Pindar, O.1.115).

    The origins of this literary genre are still being vividly discussed by scholars. Nevertheless, the opinion expressed by Aristotle in the fourth chapter of Poetics that the drama has two main sources is increasingly widely accepted. These include dithyramb (a Greek choral lyric) and satyr plays presented during Dionysia.77 This thesis, leaving aside all the other details, is confirmed by the fact that the plays were staged in Athens during the festival in the honour of Dionysius.78 The decisive factor in the emergence of this literary genre was the performance of Thespis, who in 534 BC at the time of the Great Dionysia is believed to have introduced stage dialogue and coryphaeus.79 The tragedy flourished in the age of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides.

    In the classical era, alongside tragedy and satyr plays, Attican comedy developed exuberantly. Its origin is also presented by Aristotle in Poetics . The constituent elements of the comedy include the cheerful song sung during the Dionysia and the short farces played in the towns inhabited by the Doric people.80 The beginnings of a proper comedy date back to the comedy contests held in the 5th century BC during the Great Dionysia, in which the following writers won: Cratinus, Crates, Pherecrates, and Eupolis.81 Aristophanes was the master and representative of the so-called Old Comedy. After his death, this literary genre began to lose its power of expression. It revived to some extent in the period of the so-called Middle (late 4th century BC) and New Comedy (at the turn of 4th and 3rd century BC). Yet the works created during these periods no longer had such a significant impact on the shaping of the concepts we discuss as those from the Old Comedy period (the 5th century BC).

    Therefore, we will focus on the works of the three great representatives of tragedy (Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides) and one comedy playwright (Aristophanes). All of them are regarded as the representatives of the classical period of Greek literature.

    1.3.1 Aeschylus

    The tragedy playwriter, who lived between 525–456 BC came from an aristocratic family living near Athens. His works have already the features of the then approaching classical era, but the archaic traits are still noticeable. During his life, he wrote ninety plays, fifty-two of which received the highest distinctions.82 A collection of seven late tragedies has survived to these times: The Persians , Seven against Thebes , The Suppliants and Prometheus Bound and the Oresteia trilogy, which includes: Agamemnon , The Libation Bearers , The Eumenides .83

    In almost all these works (except Seven Against Thebes) we find terms that are of significance to us. From the first group (with the root ὑψο): τὸ ὕψος (1 time), ὑψηλός (2 times), ὕψιστος (5 times) and ὑψόθεν (2 times). The second group (with the prefix ἀνα or the root ἀνω) and cognates: ἀναιρέω (1 time), ἀνίστημι (8 times), ἡ ἀνάστασις (2 times), ἄνω (4 times), ἄνωθεν (7 times) and ἐγείρω (5 times). The numbers are not impressive, but as it will turn out below, quite significant.

    1.3.1.1 τὸ ὕψος

    This noun is used only once by Aeschylus in Agamemnon . After the death of the protagonist, Clytemnestra said: πημονήν ἀρκύστατον, ὕψος κρεῖσσον ἐκπηδήματος (1376). It is not difficult to notice that the noun in question, used without the article, refers to the adjective ἀρκύστατος which can be used to describe ‘(area) fenced in’.84 It means literally: ‘its height is higher than a leap’. In this case it is the literal meaning of the investigated noun.85

    1.3.1.2 ὑψηλός

    An adjective used twice by Aeschylus. Once in The Persian and once in Agamemnon . In both texts it was used as a noun modifier. In the reply to the queen, the messenger thus described the place where Xerxes took refuge: ὑψηλὸn ὄχθον (The Persians 467). When greeting Agamemnon in front of the palace, Clytemnestra uses the phrase ὑψηλῆς στέγες (Agamemnon 897). In both cases the physical dimensions of ‘hill’ and ‘house’ (literally ‘roof’) are specified.86

    1.3.1.3 ὕψιστος

    We encounter this adjective five times in four tragedies: The Persians (2 times), The Suppliants (1 time), Prometheus Bound (1 time) and The Eumenides (1 time). In two texts it functions as a modifier in agreement with the noun.87 This is how the king describes his fear of Zeus: ὕψιστος γὰρ ἐν βροτοῖς φόβος (The Suppliants 479). The Pythia describes Zeus in the prologue to Eumenides as […] καὶ τέλειον ὕψιστον Δία (The Eumenides 28).

    In the following texts, this adjective was used in the sentence as partitive complement, in which the adjective serves as a quantitative modifier. Aeschylus used the noun always in the plural genitive case, and the adjective in the single or plural nominative. For example, queen Atossa, on learning the news of the defeat of Xerxes’ troops, expressed her sadness with κακῶν ὕψιστα (The Persians 331). Similarly, the Ghost of Darius described the suffering that Xerxes’ warriors would experience with κακῶν ὕψιστ’ (The Persians 807). Prometheus applies this modifier to describe the Caucasus: ὀρῶν ὕψιστον (Prometheus Bound 719–720).

    The aforementioned texts reveal that this adjective has a metaphorical meaning only two texts: a direct meaning when Zeus Most Hight was referred to (ὕψιστον Δία; Eumenides 28) and an indirect meaning the fear of Zeus is described as ‘supreme’ (ὕψιστος […] φόβος; The Suppliants 479). Other uses of this term, although undoubtedly interesting, have no figurative meaning. They rather describe the extent of suffering or directly the height of the Caucasus mountain range.

    1.3.1.4 ὑψόθεν

    An adverb used twice by this author in one drama – The Suppliants . In both cases, it functions as an adverbial of place. In the introducing song the chorus described Zeus in this way: ὑψόθεν δ’ εὖ κλύοι καλούμενος (175). In the following parts, also in relation to Zeus, the chorus sang: Τὸν ὑψόθεν δκοπὸν ἑπισκόπει (381). We can see then that this term collocates with the verbs κλύω and ἑπισκοπέω. Both actions refer to Zeus, so we can conclude that this is the place from which this god will intervene: he will ‘listen’ and ‘watch, look’.

    1.3.1.5 ἀναιρέω

    In the final scenes of The Libation Bearers , Orestes speaks bitter words about the murder of Agamemnon by his mother, Clytemnestra. This is where we notice this verb: tῷδὲ τ’ ἂν δολώματι πολλους ἀναιρῶν (The Libation Bearers 1004). It is not difficult to observe that Aeschylus meant to ‘catch’ someone in the ambush. Leaving aside the issue of the metaphoricity of Orestes’ entire statement (about the insidious deeds of the Clytemnestra), ἀναιρέω is used here in a literal sense.

    1.3.1.6 ἀνίστημι

    Aeschylus used this verb in three meanings. In the transitive form, it means ‘to displace, evict, wreak havoc’. And in this sense we encounter it in two fragments: ἂν ὡς Ἀργεῖον ἀνστήσῃς στόλον (The Suppliants 323); πόλεὼν τ’ ἀναστάσεις (The Persians 99). In both these texts ἀνίστημι has a literal meaning. The chorus calls for the king’s mercy not to destroy the Argives or announces the fact that this is what the Persians do.

    Much more interesting for this topic is the use of ἀνίστημι in the intransitive form. It usually means, as in other authors’ works, to ‘arise’ from sleep. This is what the shadow of the Clytemnestra called Erinyes for: ἀνστήσῃ (The Eumenides 124); ἀνίστω (The Eumenides 124); they also encouraged themselves to it: ἀνίστω (The Eumenides 141). Similarly, Atossa, first told about her dream and then, emerging from the dream (ἀνέστην), spoke about her daydreaming (The Persians 201).

    Another two texts mention the resurrection. First the messenger, announcing the victory of Agamemnon, in the context of the deaths of many warriors, claimed: μηδ’ ἀναστῆναι μέλειν (Agamemnon 569). Then one act from the Chorus spoke the significant words: ἐπεὶ δυσμηχανῶ λόγοισι τὸν θανόντ’ ἀνιστάναι πάλιν (Agamemnon 1361). Although in the first text this verb is a transitive form and in the second it is intransitive, the pronunciation is similar. Both express doubts about the possibility of resurrection (569) or raising from the dead (1361). However, this apprehension allows us to suppose that this idea was known to Aeschylus and his contemporaries. A completely different issue is the possibility of its realization. However, this does not change the fact of its existence, at least in the literary sphere.

    1.3.1.7 ἡ ἀνάστασις

    A term which in the works of Aeschylus conveys the same meaning as ἀνίστημι. In one of the texts it stands for ‘havoc’ (literally ‘displacement’), which Clytemnestra is heralded by a messenger: φράζων ἅλωσιν Ἰλίου τ’ ἀνάστασιν (Agamemnon 589). The next passage refers directly to the resurrection. Here, Apollo asks a very significant question: ἅπαξ θανόντες οὔτις ἔστ’ ἀνάστασις (The Eumenides 647). Although the possibility of resurrection is clearly in doubt, it is not the idea itself. We can infer, as in the case of ἀνίστημι, also ἡ ἀνάστασις confirms the existence of the resurrection idea in Greek terminology.

    1.3.1.8 ἄνω

    This adverb was used by Aeschylus 4 times, and it almost always refers to the sphere of existence or action of gods. Thus Apollo speaks of Zeus: τὰ δ’ ἄλλα πάντ’ ἄνω τε καὶ κάτω στρέφῶν τίθησιν (The Eumenides 650). The scope of Zeus’ actions is not limited, it includes what is high above (ἄνω) and what is down below (κάτω). Of course, it can be considered to be an idiomatic expression ‘here and there’.88 This does not change the fact, however, that on the linguistic level, we find here an adverbial of place meaning ‘high above, up’.

    We meet with a slightly different shade of meaning in Electra’s statement, she turned to Hermes with the following words: κῆρυξ μέγιστε τῶν ἄνω τε καὶ κάτω (The Libation Bearers 124). She called this god “a messenger of those high above and down below”. It is probably about the gods living in heavenly and underground spheres. Then this adverb would define both spaces where the gods dwell. In a similar sense, in the following passage Electra expresses a wish: ἡμῖν δὲ πομπὸς ἴσθι τῶν ἐσθῶν ἄνω (The Libation Bearers 147). The good is to be sent ‘from above’. It seems that this is also the sphere of the gods’ dwelling, since ‘good’ is to come from them, as evidenced by another stich: σὺν θεοῖσι (“from the grace of the gods”).

    In the next text, the chorus summoned the land and the ruler of the underworld to release the deceased, which had a special meaning: πέμπετε δ’ ἄνω (The Persians 645). Darius is to be released ‘up’, which is synonymous with a return to life. The promise was fulfilled because in verse 681 the Ghost of Darius took the floor. Perhaps this is not literally a description of the resurrection, but in some sense, it is about bringing Darius back to life. And the process and movement itself (‘upwards’) has a significant character.

    On the example of the use of the adverb in question, we can see the confirmation of its two essential meanings. First, it defines the space of dwelling and action of the gods. Secondly, it stands for the motion of the person being brought back to life. Both are important for the issue under investigation.

    1.3.1.9 ἄνωθεν

    This term was used by this author in a much broader sense, both literally and figuratively. In the first sense we meet it in the following texts: Agamemnon 875; 1595; The Libation Bearers 427.

    Much more interesting seems to be its metaphorical meaning. A “transitional” meaning can be found in an interjection from Agamemnon : πολλὴν ἄνωθεν τὴν κάτω γὰρ οὐ λέγω (Agamemnon 871). It should be translated literally: “much above, what is much below I do not discuss”. This meaning is extremely difficult to interpret. Given the context, it is probably a reference to living on earth and being alive (ἄνωθεν) and living below, being dead (κάτω).

    It is much easier to understand the sense of subsequent texts. The chorus announces that Zeus is a single ruler whose power reaches above all: οὔτινος ἄνωθεν ἡμένου σέβει κράτη (The Suppliants 597). It appears that Zeus is not afraid of any gods sitting ‘high above’ (ἄνωθεν). Similarly, Aegisthus is convinced: θεοὺς ἄνωθεν γῆς ἐποπτεύειν ἄχη (Agamemnon 1579). Once again, the intervention of the gods ‘from above’ towards the earth is advisable. This time the term refers to watching, looking (ἐποπτεύω). A slightly different meaning can be assigned to another call of the chorus to avenge τοῖς θ’ ὐπὸ χθονὸς φίλοισιν τοῖς τ’ ἄνωθεν (The Libation Bearers 834). The chorus definitely mentions the dead. Interestingly, however, they were described literally as “those under the ground and from above”. Perhaps all the spaces in which the dead dwell were thus described: the underworld and heavenly spheres, but the meaning is not certain.89

    1.3.1.10 ἐγείρω

    Aeschylus made use of this term 5 times. Usually in the literal sense: ‘get up, wake up’ from a dream (The Eumenides 140 [× 2]; Agamemnon 299) or from a place (The Eumenides 706). We meet it only once in a figurative sense in the sense of ‘arousing’ vengeance from the blood of the dead (Agamemnon 346). However, this is not the meaning that would be important for the subject under investigation.

    Summary

    Many terms describing the category of height in Aeschylus have a literal meaning. These include: τὸ ὕψος, ὑψηλός, ἀναιρέω, ἐγείρω. Other terms can be classified by meaning. The space in which the gods dwell and from which they act is described by the terms ὑψόθεν (The Suppliants 175; 381), ἄνω (The Eumenides 650; The Libation Bearers 124; 147), ἄνωθεν (The Suppliants 597; Agamemnon 1579). Zeus is considered most high among gods; to this end, this author uses the adjective of the superlative form: ὕψιστος (The Suppliants 479; The Eumenides 28).

    A separate issue is the resurrection described by Aeschylus or even referring to the idea of the resurrection. The first term is described by the terms ἄνω (The Persians 645 – releasing Darius up) and ἄνωθεν (The Libation Bearers 834). The first text insists that the deceased Darius should be ‘released’ up, that is, brought back to life. The second one probably indicates the space in which the dead are staying. In referring to the idea of the resurrection, this author uses terms with the same root: the verb (ἀνίστημι) and the noun (ἡ ἀνάστασις). In both cases, the main characters doubt the possibility of resurrection/raising from the dead (cf. Agamemnon 569; 1361; The Eumenides 647). To declare the resurrection impossible is not to deny it. His idea is present, even if the fact itself is denied. We observe thus very significant directions of ‘movement’ in Aeschylus’ speech about exaltation. The first direction is from top to bottom (priority of the gods), while the second is from bottom to top (priority of the people). The gods intervene from their place of dwelling in people’s lives, in their space of existence. People, on the other hand, have a chance to ‘move’ upwards, only under the condition of the intervention of the saving gods (resurrection). However, this is only possible with “deified” characters such as Darius in The Persians .90

    1.3.2 Sophocles

    He lived between 496–406 BC. He came from Colonos, a community in Attica. At the beginning of his work he modelled himself on the pathetic style of Aeschylus, but with time he developed his own, natural and “ethical” style, corresponding to the characters of people presented in his tragedies. Sophocles left a very rich literary legacy; today we know one hundred and fourteen titles of his works. He won 18 times at Dionysia and 6 times at Lenaia festivals.91 Only seven tragedies have survived to our times: Ajax , Antigone , Electra , The Trachiniae (Women of Trachis), Oedipus Tyrannus , Philoctetes and exhibited only five years after Sophocles’ death Oedipus at Colonos .92

    In all these works, we find the terms under investigation. However, their occurrence is not equally frequent. The terms with the root ὑψο (ὑψηλός; 2 times, ὕψιστος; 2 times and ὑψοῦ; 1 time) are only found in five tragedies. The terms with the root ἀνω or the prefix ἀνα and cognates can be found in all Sophocles’ works: ἀναιρέω (4 times), ἀναλαμβάνω (1 time), ἀνίστημι (8 times), ἡ ἀνάστασις (1 time), ἄνω (19 times), ἄνωθεν (4 times), ἐγείρω (1 time) and ἐπαίρω (5 times).

    1.3.2.1 ὑψηλός

    Although used only twice, this adjective is found in two syntactic functions. First, as a predicative. Agamemnon in the final fragments of Ajax treated Teucer with contempt: ἄπο ὑψηλ’ ἐκόμπεις (Ajax 1230). He accused Teucer of expressing pride and claiming that he ‘(is) great’ (ὑψηλ’) or ‘proud’. In Antigone, this adjective has a modifying function. The chorus in the dialogue with the protagonist asserted ὑψηλὸν ἐς Δίκας βάθρον (Antigone 854), specifying the term ‘throne’ (τὸ βάθρον).93

    1.3.2.2 ὕψιστος

    In both cases this adjective is used by Sophocles, it referred indirectly to Zeus. In The Trachiniae Heracles said: Οἶαθ’ οὖν τὸν Οἴτης Ζηνὸς ὕψιστον πάγον (The Trachiniae 1191). The phrase ὕψιστον πάγον does not mean ‘the highest hill’ in the literal sense, but rather ‘the sacred hill’ on which the sacrifices for Zeus were made. This can be inferred from Hyllus’s words: “I know it, I have made sacrifices on it many times” (The Trachiniae 1192). In Philoctetes Neoptolemus, Achilles’ son, took this oath: Ἀπώμοσ’ ἁγνὸν Ζηνὸς ὑψίστου σέβας (Philoctetes 1289). He swore by “the sacred majesty of Zeus”. Although grammatically, ὕψιστος may describe here both the person of Zeus and his majesty. Whatever it is, we certainly have here a reference to Zeus, directly or indirectly. It seems, therefore, that the adjective ὕψιστος functions as an attribute assigned to this very god, if not the title by which Zeus is referred to.94

    1.3.2.3 ὑψοῦ

    An adverb used by Sophocles only once. Jocasta, seeing Oedipus worry, prays to Apollo asking: Ὑψοῦ γὰρ ἄρει θυμὸν Οἰδίπους ἄγαν λύπαισαι παντοίασιν (Oedipus Tyrannus 914). The phrase ὑψοῦ […] αἴρει θυμὸν Οἰδίπους does not refer to the physical raising of Oedipus’s soul, but rather to ‘spiritual elevation’ or consolation provided by Apollo, as the rest of the sentence proves. In this fragment we encounter a figurative meaning of the term in question.

    1.3.2.4 ἀναιρέω

    This term was used several times by this author (Oedipus Tyrannus 1035; Electra 1140; The Trachiniae 558; Ajax 237), but always in a literal sense: ‘pick up, raise’.

    1.3.2.5 ἀναλαμβάνω

    It only occurs once in the works of Sophocles. Neoptolemus mentions his mistake: ἁμαρτών ἀναλαβεῖν πειράσομαι (Philoctetes 1248). The context reveals that the actions taken by the protagonist lead to ‘rectification’ (ἀναλαμβάνω)95 of the mistake made earlier. The figurative meaning seems to be confirmed; the point is to ‘restore’ the previous state of affairs or at least ‘compensate’ for the mistake made.

    1.3.2.6 ἀνίστημι

    This verb has a transitive and intransitive form and it is used similarly by other authors. The transitive form is used in two texts. Lichas tells Deianira about Heracles’ actions: ᾕρει τῶνδ’ ἀνάστατον δορὶ χώραν γυναικῶν ὧν ὁρᾷς ἐω ὄμμασιν (The Trachiniae 240). The meaning of this verb seems to be clear: ‘to evict, make desolate’. In another sense it was used in the description of Oedipus: θανάτων δ’ ἐμᾷ χώρᾳ πύργος ἀνέστα (Oedipus Tyrannus 1201). The sense of the whole description is undoubtedly metaphorical, but this verb has a literal meaning: ‘to stand up, get up’.

    In its intransitive form, it has two meanings. It usually means ‘to get up’, ‘wake up’. In that sense, we find it in: The Trachiniae 979, Ajax 788, Oedipus at Colonos 276, 1286, Philoctetes 666. Only once does it have another meaning in this form. The chorus turned to Electra with the significant words: ἀλλ’ οὔτοι τὸν γ’ ἐξ Ἀΐδα παγκοίνου λίμνας πατέρ’ ἀνστάσεις (Electra 137–139),96 claiming that Hades will definitely not let Agamemnon go, that is, he will not allow him to rise (ἀνίστημι) from the dead. We have already met with a similar statement in the tragedies of Aeschylus, and here too it has a comparable meaning. It is the impossibility of returning to life, not the idea, that is mentioned as a fact. So it seems reasonable to claim that it was known to both playwrights.

    1.3.2.7 ἡ ἀνάστασις

    This noun retains in the works of Sophocles the same meaning as the intransitive verb discussed above, that is ‘raising, getting up’ from sleep (thus a literal sense). This interpretation is given to it by Philoctetes in a long monologue about the events in which he participated (see Philoctetes 276).

    1.3.2.8 ἄνω

    We can find this adverb in Sophocles’ works in both literal and figurative meaning. In the former, it usually defines (as the adverbial of place) the action performed ‘up, on high’ or ‘upwards’ (cf. Ajax 240, 298, 918, 1412, Electra 421, 714, Oedipus Tyrannus 965, Philoctetes 1092, The Trachiniae 917).

    The other texts in which we meet this adverb can be divided into three groups. In the first ἄνω refers to the living on earth, and thus above the underground world of the gods of death. In this sense, it could mean depriving someone of the opportunity to be among the living. This is how Creon speaks of Antigone: μετοικίας δ’ οὖν τῆς ἄνω στερήσεται (Antigone 889). The context shows that ἄνω means being outside, above the grave, that is on earth, among the living. In a similar sense, Tiresias threatens Creon: ὧν ἔχεις μὲν τῶν ἄνω βαλὼν κάτω ψυχὴν τ’ ἀτίμως ἐν τάφῳ κατῴκισας (Antigone 1068). These words were said when Creon retained the body of a Polynices ‘up’ (i.e., not buried, on the ground), though the body belonged to ‘deities underground’ (cf. 1070–1071). Also, Electra lamenting over the urn with her brother’s alleged ashes says: καὶ γὰρ ἡνίκ’ ἦσθ’ ἄνω ξὺν σοὶ μετεῖχον τῶν ἴσων (Electra 1167). The phrase ἦναι ἄνω means being in the world, among the living.97 The same meaning is assigned to the adverb in the prophecy of Tyresias to Oedipus: καὶ λέληθας ἐχθρὸς ὣν τοῖς σοῖσιν αὐτοῦ νέρθε κἀπὶ γῆς ἄνω (Oedipus Tyrannus 416). The context shows that Oedipus did not realize that he is the enemy of his loved ones, both the dead (νέρθε) and the living, staying on earth (κἀπὶ γῆς ἄνω). Also, the Philoctetes laments, saying: ὦ στυγνὸς αἰών τί με τί δῆτ’ ἔχεις ἄνω βλέποντα (Philoctetes 1348). The phrase ἄνω βλέποντα could mean simple looking, up but the context indicates that it refers to “staying among the living”.

    The second group are those texts in which ἄνω specifies the sphere of the dwelling of the gods. In this sense the second part of the oracle of Tiresias against Creon, mentioned above, is maintained: ὧν οὔτε σοὶ μέτεστιν οὔτε τοῖς ἄνω θεοῖσιν (Antigone 1072). The body of Polynices does not belong to either Creon or the gods ‘on high’, i.e. the heavenly gods. In a very lively dialogue between Philoctetes and Neoptolemus, this adverb is repeated twice. Firstly, Philoctetes when describes the place he is heading to: ἄνω (Philoctetes 814). This very enigmatic statement is explained by Neoptolemus’ doubt: τί τὸν ἄνω λεύσσεις κύκλον (Philoctetes 815). The phrase ὁ ἄνω κύκλος, is nothing more than “celestial spheres”, the place of the gods dwell.

    The third group with ἄνω can be found in two texts. But in each of them this adverb has a different meaning. In Oedipus in Colonos, the chorus sings: ὁρᾷ ὁρᾷ ταῦτ’ ἀεὶ χρόνος τρέχων μὲν ἔτερα τὰ δὲ παρ’ ἦμαρ αὖθις αὔξων ἄνω (Oedipus at Colonos 1455). The combination of ἄνω with the verb αὔξάνω takes on the meaning ‘to strengthen’ or ‘to exalt’. This last meaning is indicated by the context. Another meaning of this adverb is found in Hyllus’ words: οἶδ’ ὡς θυτήρ γε πολλὰ δὴ σταθεὶς ἄνω` (The Trachiniae 1192). This time, this adverb is combined with the verb ἵστημι, which in the transitive form means ‘to put up’. The context of this fragment reveals that this ‘putting something up’, should be construed as ‘making a sacrifice’.

    From the texts analysed, it can be concluded that Sophocles knew at least five different meanings of ἄνω, depending on the context and verb with which it collocates. It may mean a physical activity performed somewhere up or above, or upward. In a metaphorical sense, it can refer to the sphere of man’s earthly existence (see Antigone 889, 1068, Electra 1167, Oedipus Tyrannus 416, Philoctetes 1348) as opposed to the underground world, which belongs to the gods. It can also describe the heavenly sphere of the dwelling of gods (see Antigone 1072, Philoctetes 814, 815) as opposed to the earthly existence of humans. In one text (in combination with ἵστημι) it means ‘standing up to sacrifice’ (see The Trachiniae 1192). And in another it stands for ‘exaltation’, ‘strengthening’ (see Oedipus in Colonus 1455).

    1.3.2.9 ἄνωθεν

    It is used much less frequently and only in one sense used by Sophocles. In his works it always means a physical movement from on high to below (Philoctetes 1002, Oedipus at Colonos 1082). With one variant when it replaces ἄνω (Philoctetes 28, Electra 1060).

    1.3.2.10 ἐγείρω

    The verb is found only once in the works of this author in Oedipus at Colonos 1779. Although the meaning of ἐγείρω in the final song of the Chorus can be understood figuratively (‘to sing the funeral song’), it has no particular significance for our investigations.

    1.3.2.11 ἐπαίρω

    Used several times by Sophocles. In a literal sense it means ‘to raise, to lift’, both in relation to man (Philoctetes 889) and parts of his body (‘eyelids’; Oedipus Tyrannus 1276). In a figurative sense, it may mean ‘provoke an argument’, ‘stir up quarrels’ (Oedipus Tyrannus 635). In relation to the sacrifice, it may refer to ‘raising’ or ‘making’ the sacrifice (Electra 634). Another use also seem interesting, namely ἐπαίρω. The chorus asks Oedipus: τίς σ’ ἐπῆρε δαιμόνων (Oedipus Tyrannus 1328). In this context, this verb means “to be aroused, possessed” by one of the demons.

    Summary

    Among the many terms which Sophocles used to introduce the category of height, four of them have always a literal meaning in his works. These are ἀναιρέω, ἡ ἀνάστασις, ἄνωθεν and ἐπαίρω.

    The figurative uses of the terms are extremely rich. They form two groups: with regard to man and with regard to gods. Some of them remain in a sense ‘on the borderline’ of the world of gods and people. People can show pride. This is described by the term ὑψηλός (Ajax 1230). By making a mistake, they try to rectify it and restore the previous state. This is indicated by the use of the verb ἀναλαμβάνω (Philoctetes 1248). While remaining in a difficult situation a person may need to be consoled, elevated (ὑψοῦ; Oedipus Tyrannus 914) or be strengthened with time (ἄνω; Oedipus in Colonus 1455).

    The life, the presence of man in the world (even his corpse) is in opposition to the sphere of the swelling of underground gods and is described by the adverb ἄνω (Antigone 889, 1068, Electra 1167, Oedipus Tyrannus 416, Philoctetes 1348). The reverse human movement from the world of the dead, that is, resurrection, is possible, at least in the conceptual sphere as shown in the context in which the verb ἀνίστημι is used (Electra 138–139). Relationships with the world of the gods can also be established through sacrifices, which is confirmed with such terms as ἄνω (The Trachiniae 1192) or ἐπαίρω (Electra 634).

    But man, living on earth, remains as if suspended between the two worlds of the gods, upper and lower. This upper world is specified by the adverb ἄνω (Antigone 1072, Philoctetes 814, 815). And Zeus, the most high among the gods of Olympus, is indirectly referred to by Sophocles by means of the superlative ὕψιστος (The Trachiniae 1191, Philoctetes 1289).

    1.3.3 Euripides

    The son of a wealthy proprietor Mnesarchus and a noblewoman Cleito; he lived in the years 485 to 407/6 BC. He was born in his father’s estate on Salamin. He was first trained in gymnastics and then in ‘music’, which included literature and poetic technique and philosophy. He barely left Salamis, devoting his time to study and write. He probably owned the first private library in Athens. However, at the end of his life (in 408 or 407) he left Athens and went to Pella for the court of the Macedonian king Archelaus. He died in 407 or 406 in Pella, according to a well-documented legend, he was torn apart by hunting dogs.98 Out of Euripides’ prolific work (ninety-two pieces), seventeen tragedies, one satirical drama and over thousand fragments have survived.99 In each of them we can find terms of interest; they include: Medea , Hippolytus , Hecuba , Andromache , The Trojan Women , Heracleidae , The Suppliants , Heracles , Alcestis , Iphigenia in Tauris , Helen , Ion , Electra , Orestes , Phoenician Women , Iphigenia in Aulis , Bacchae ; and the satirical drama Cyclops .100

    In these works, Euripides used four terms from the first group (with the root ὑψο): τὸ ὕψος (2 times), ὑψηλός (8 times), ὑψόθεν (2 times) and ὑψοῦ (1 time). He also made use of nine terms from the second group (with the prefix ἀνα or with the root ἀνω and cognates): ἀναβαίνω (3 times), ἀναιρέω (10 times), ἀναλαμβάνω (6 times), ἀνίστημι (21 times), ἡ ἀνάστασις (1 time), ἄνω (30 times), ἄνωθεν (2 times), ἐγείρω (5 times) and ἐπαίρω (17 times).

    1.3.3.1 τὸ ὕψος

    A noun used twice by this Author in two different tragedies. In the Phoenician Women, Jocasta, in dialogue with her son, Polynices, says among other things: οὐδ’ ηὑγένειά σ’ ἦρεν εἰς ὕψος μέγαν (Phoenician Women 404). It can be translated literally as follows: “Nor did your noble birth raise you to a great height?” It seems, therefore, that this is about a certain social position that Polynices was to achieve through its origin. But that never happened, he concluded, replying to his mother: “The family never helped me avoid evil, they did not feed me” (cf. Phoenician Women 405).

    In Bacchae, the messenger, at the request of the chorus, tells the story of the death of King Pentheus, who was torn apart by Bacchae led by his mother (cf. Bacchae  1043–1152). Describing the place where the king was attacked, he uttered: κρεῖσσον γὰρ ὕψος τῆς προθυμίας ἔχων καθῆσθ’ ὁ τλήμων (Bacchae 1101–1102). The phrase we are interested in (ὕψος τῆς προθυμίας) means ‘height’ of lust and the fury of bacchants, in comparison to which the place where Pentheus sat turned out to be more unhappy. It seems that the point here is to describe the great fury (literally ‘height of lust’) with which the king was attacked.

    1.3.3.2 ὑψηλός

    An adjective used by Euripides eight times, but in many syntactic functions: as a modifier, as a noun, as a predicative and in idiomatic phrases.

    As a modifier, we meet it in the satirical drama Cyclops . Odysseus tells the story of an ambush set on a monster: ὑψηλῆς δρυὸς κορμοὺς πλατείας ἐσχάρας Βαλὼν ἔπι (Cyclops 383). He referred to the size of the (tall) trees turned into logs that were thrown into fire. A slightly different situation can be found in the next text, with ὑψηλός used as a modifier, but its meaning is metaphorical: ὑψηλῶν δ’ ἐπι ναῶν ἔθηκε σκῦλα πλεῖστα βαρβάρων (Electra 6). In the prologue, a peasant (Autourgos) recapitulated the deed Agamemnon did by making sacrifices in ‘high’, that is, majestic, magnificent temples. The point here is to emphasize the majesty or extraordinary dignity of these places of worship.

    In a similar sense we meet this adjective, this time as a noun, in the next two texts. Iolaus, having obtained some help from Demophon during the war, praised him with the words: πολλῷ σ’ ἐπαίνω Θησέως ἑστὼς πέλας ὑψηλὸν ἀρῶ καὶ λέγων τάδ’ εὐφρανῶ (Heracleidae 322). Literally translating this phrase: ‘I will raise (to) heights’, ‘I will raise high’, ‘I will exalt’. In this particular case, the point is to consider Demophon’s conduct to be as exalted as the rescue of Theseus by Heracles. A similar meaning of this adjective can be found in the words of Theseus to Adrastus about fortune in The Suppliants : ὅ τ’ ὄλβιός νιν πνεῦμα δειμαίνων λιπεῖν ὑψηλὸν αἴρει (The Suppliants 555). The fate extols the lucky, which needs to be construed that it changes his social or financial condition and does not physically raise him up.

    In the function of the predicative ὑψηλός was used by Euripides once and it was incomplete. In the tragedy of Iphigenia in Tauris, Orestes speaks to Pylades in the following way: ἀμφίβληστρα γὰρ τοίχων ὁρας ὑψηλά (Iphigenia in Tauris 97). In this phrase we can see an ellipse of the verb εἰσὶ(ν) (indicativus praesentis activi 3. pluralis from εἰμί) or similar, because “the surrounding walls are high”: ἀμφίβληστρα γὰρ τοίχων εἰσὶ ὑψηλά.

    Euripides also uses three idiomatic expressions with this adjective, which cannot be translated literally into English. In the tragedy Helen Menelaus, after the departure of the protagonist in search of the priestess Theonoe, states in a monologue: ὅταν δ’ ἀνὴρ πράξῃ κακῶς ὑψηλός, εἰς ἀηθίαν πίπτει κακίω τοῦ πάλαι δυσδαίμονος (Helen 418). The phrase κακῶς ὑψηλός means ‘great misfortune’, ‘great calamity’. Also in the tragedy of Hippolytus we meet this adjective in an idiomatic phrase. Phaedra in dialogue with the chorus says: ἀτάρ κακόν γε χατέρω γενήσομαι θανοῦς’, ἵν’ εἰδῇ μὴ ’πι τοῖς ἐμοῖς κακοῖς ὑψηλὸς εἶναι (Hippolytus 730). The phrase ἐπὶ τοῖς ἐμοῖς κακοῖς ὑψηλὸς εἶναι means ‘disregarding (someone’s) misfortune’. We meet a similar phrase in Heracles. The chorus celebrates the bravery of Macaria, the daughter of Heracles, who agreed to die to ensure victory for Demophon’s troops: μοῖρα […] τὸν μὲν ἀφ’ ὑψηλῶν βραχὺν ὤκισε (Heracleidae 613). This phrase can be translated as: “Fate […] from the heights of happiness throws into poverty”. Thus, in all cases this adjective was used its meaning was metaphorical and it was modified by the phrases with which it collocated.101

    1.3.3.3 ὑψόθεν and ὑψοῦ

    Adverbs expressing the concept of height. The former accentuates the movement from top to bottom, the latter functions as an adverbial of place. In The Trojan Women , facing the unavoidable face of Astyanax, the little son of Andromache, the latter in conversation with the Talthybius, deprived of any hope of rescue, makes a lamentation over her child and says: λυγρὸν δὲ πήδημ’ ἐς τράχηλον ὑψόθεν πεσὼν ἀνοίκτως (The Trojan Women 755). This fragment πήδημ’ ἐς τράχηλον ὑψόθεν πεσὼν can be literally translated: “jumping from high places and falling on the neck”, “a dangerous jump, at the risk of breaking the neck”. Apart from this idiomatic meaning, there is no particular figurative meaning. In Bacchae, the messenger describes the moment when Pentheus fell from a fir102 in the following words: ὑψοῦ δὲ θάσσων ὑψόθεν χαμαιριφὴς πίπτει πρὸς οὖδας μυρίοις οἰμώγμασι Πενθεύς (Bacchae 1111). As we mentioned above, the adverbs used here serve as adverbials. They convey the meaning of ‘moving from high places downwards’ (ὑψόθεν) and ‘high (place to stay)’ (ὑψοῦ). In the texts under consideration, however, they have no metaphorical sense.

    1.3.3.4 ἀναβαίνω

    This verb was rarely used by Euripides (3 times). In all texts it has a literal meaning: ‘to go up’ (Hecuba 1263, Bacchae 1061, 1107).

    1.3.3.5 ἀναιρέω

    Slightly more often used by this author (10 times), it also has a wider range of meanings. In a literal sense it means to ‘raise, lift’ physically someone alive (Helen 1217, 1616, Iphigenia in Tauris 373) or dead (The Suppliants 471, 1167).

    In a figurative sense, it can have several meanings. Menelaus in a conversation with Andromache and her son, Molossus, says to the latter: σὲ μὲν ἡμετέρα ψῆφος ἀναιρεῖ (Andromache 518), which literally means “so this (voting) ballot will raise you up”. This is a judgment (ψῆφος) that will cause the death of (ἀναιρεῖ) Molossus. In the next text, Old Man speaks to Orestes: ἐκ βάθρων γὰρ πᾶς ἀωῄρησαι φίλοις (Electra 608), which can be translated as: “all (your) friends died entirely”.103 As we can see this verb may have the meaning: ‘to die, to be removed’. In Electra’s monologue about Aegisthus and Clytemnestra we can hear: ἄμφω πονηρὼ δ’ ὄντ’ ἀνῃρεῖσθον τύχην κείνη τε τὴν σὴν καὶ σὺ τοὐκείνης κακόν (Electra 928). The phrase ὄντ’ ἀνῃρεῖσθον τύχην refers to “the misery experienced by them both”. This verb thus means ‘receiving’ the retribution for the harm (κακόν) done by Aegisthus and Clytemnestra. In the next text Agamemnon describes the intervention of the soothsayer Calchas: Κάλχας δ’ ὁ μάντις […] ἀνεῖλεν (Iphigenia in Aulis 90). Therefore, the meaning of this verb is clear: ‘to announce, to proclaim’. This activity is reserved for the oracle and the soothsayers. The considerations of the messenger who addresses Theseus point to yet another meaning of this verb: ταῦτ’ ἀφέντες οἱ κακοὶ πολέμους ἀναιρούμεσθα (The Suppliants 492). In this context, ἀναιρέω means ‘to instigate, to declare’ war.

    The above research reveals that Euripides uses ἀναιρέω in its tragedies in different meanings. However, none of them contributes significantly to this investigation. Only the manner in which an oracle or a prophet announces the will of the gods can be of any importance. However, it is impossible to find any special and valuable metaphorical meaning for our research.

    1.3.3.6 ἀναλαμβάνω

    A verb quite rarely used by Euripides (6 times), but in interesting meaning shifts. In a literal sense, met only once, it means to ‘take out, unsheathe’ a sword (Orestes 1531). Much richer is the figurative meaning of the term. Ulysses, addressing his companions, says: καὶ τὸν ἀρχαῖον φίλον Διόσυνον ἀνάμαβ’ (Cyclops 436). The point is to ‘get’ (ἀνάμαβ’) an old friend, Dionysus. A slightly different meaning has ἀναλαμβάνω in Agamemnon’s statement to Menelaus: ἀπολέσας κακὸν λέχος ἀναλαβεῖν θέλεις (Iphigenia in Aulis 390). The point of this text is to “get the wife back” (ἀναλαβεῖν). These two fragments, though undoubtedly present the metaphorical sense of this verb, are of secondary importance. The remaining texts seem much more important for this research. Eurystheus in a conversation with Heracles’ mother, Alcmene asks οὔκουν σύ γ’ ἀναλαβοῦσα τὰς ἐμὰς τύχας (Heracles 1005). In this context this verb means ‘to take something on’. In this particular case, “to put oneself in a situation of suffering”, to be empathetic with for Eurystheus. In the next text, Creusa, Xuthus’s wife, answers his call: Λοξίας δ’ ἐὰν θέλῃ νῦν ἀλλὰ τὰς πρὶν ἀναλαβεῖν ἁμαρτίας (Ion 426). The excerpt from Creusa’s prayer indicates that ἀναλαμβάνω here means ‘to repair sins’, i.e. to restore the previous state. Even more significant is another passage in which Orestes makes a complaint: μήτ’ ἐκεῖνος ἀναλαβεῖν ἔμελλε φῶς (Orestes 292), which can be translated as the possibility of ‘restoring light’ for Orestes’ father, Agamemnon. This verb therefore means, at least in practical terms, the impossibility of bringing Agamemnon back to life. But the very idea of returning to life is present in it.

    The research led us to the conclusion that in the works of Euripides ἀναλαμβάνω has three important meanings: 1) ‘to take on’ the sufferings of others, 2) ‘to repair, make amends’ for the sins committed, and 3) ‘to bring life back’ to the deceased.

    1.3.3.7 ἀνίστημι and ἡ ἀνάστασις

    The verb was often used by Euripides (21 times), much more than the noun (used only once). In a literal sense, it usually means: (a) ‘to erect, build’ something material (Helen 1244, Ion 1129, Phoenician Women 572, 824), (b) ‘to annihilate, destroy’ (Andromache 1249, Hecuba 494), c) ‘to arise, to rise up’ in a general sense (Hecuba 499, Heracleidae 59, Heracles 1226, 1394, Medea 1163, 1190)104 ‘to stand up, rise’ in the congregation in order to take the floor (Orestes 885, 887, 902, 917). The noun only used in one text means ‘destruction, extermination’ (The Trojan Women 364).

    In a metaphorical sense we meet three different meanings in the works of this author. The first is ‘to pick up the fallen’. In this sense Pheres speaks about Alcestis, Apollo’s wife: ἀναστήσασα δὲ ἡμᾶς πίτνοντας (Alcestis 625). The context excludes any physical activity of lifting or raising; the words reveal a metaphorical meaning of ‘saving’ from oppression: ὦ τὸνδε μὲν σώσας (Alcestis 625a). The second meaning is to ‘raise, restore’ the fear of the gods. This is what Lyssa claims, describing Heracles’ actions: θεῶν ἀνέστησεν μόνος τιμὰς πιτνούσας ἀνοσίων ἀνδρῶν ὕπο (Heracles 852). It is undoubtedly about ‘restoration’ (ἀνέστησεν) of the fear of God, lost because of ungodly people. The third meaning is ‘to rise from the dead’. The chorus referred thus to Heracles, which could bring Alcestis, Apollo’s wife back to life: δμαθέντας γὰρ ἀνίστα (Alcestis 126). Heracles is praised as the only one who ‘raised the killed’, and he repeated this deed with Alcestis (see Alcestis 1008nn). In a similar sense, Amphitryon said to Lycos about Heracles: εἴ γε μή τις τεῶν ἀναστήσειέ νιν (Heracles 719). From this statement it can be concluded that he meant the ‘resurrection’ of Heracles by one of the gods.

    The above analyses show that most often (although only twice) Euripides uses ἀνίστημι in the sense of ‘resurrecting, bringing back to life’, though another meaning of this verb is also found: ‘to raise, lift up’ the falling and ‘to raise, restore’ the fear of the gods.

    1.3.3.8 ἄνω

    Euripides used this adverb in various shades of meaning. Literally it stands for an upward movement in the sense of the location (Bacchae 1071, 1076, Cyclops 706, Hecuba 1010, Hippolytus 1234, 1292, Medea 410) or time (The Suppliants 520), or an activity directed upwards (Cyclops 211, Hecuba 1279, Ion 1155, Orestes 1542, The Suppliants 654). In a literal sense, the idiomatic phrase ἄνω κάτω or ἄνω τε καὶ κάτω, which means movement ‘in all directions’ (Bacchae 349, 602, 741, 753, Electra 842, Heracles 953, 1307, Iphigenia in Tauris 282, Phoenician Women 181, The Suppliants 689) is worth noting.

    In other texts, in a metaphorical sense, ἄνω refers to gods and humans, although not in equal proportion. Only once are the rulers of Olympus described in this way. Hecuba calls Agamemnon to avenge Polydorus, murdered by Polymestor: ὃς οὔτε τοὺς γῆς νέρθεν οὔτε τοὺς ἄνω δείσας (Hecuba 791). The whole phrase expresses the fact that Polymestor is neither afraid of the ‘underground’ gods (τοὺς γῆς νέρθεν) nor the heavenly ones (τοὺς ἄνω). In the following passages this adverb refers to man, both in the sense of his existence and his moral attitude. In Euripides’ understanding, the habitat of human life is the earth; as Amphitryon put it in a dialogue with Heracles: οὐδ’ οἶδεν Εὐρυσθεύσ σε γῆς ἥκοντ’ ἄνω (Heracles 616). The context (γῆς ἥκοντ’ ἄνω) clearly indicates Heracles’ ‘being up’, that is, on earth. When the human life ends, people wander, according to Greek mythology, to the underworld. Few are the cases when people can return to life from there. Heracles claims: αἰτήσομαί τε καὶ πέποιθ’ ἄξειν ἄνω Ἅκληστιν (Alcestis 853). The context suggests that the phrase ἄξειν ἄνω means ‘to bring up’ to bring Alcestis back to life on earth. In the later part of the same tragedy, the chorus doubts this possibility: οὐ γὰρ ἀνάξεις ποτ’ ἔνερθεν κλαίων τοὺς φθιμένους ἄνω (Alcestis 986). Although the very possibility of bringing Alcestis back to life is doubted, the phrase ἀνάγω ἄνω implies the action of ‘bringing up’, which indicates conclusively the bringing of her back to life on earth, at least in the conceptual sphere.

    Man in his earthly existence has always had the opportunity to exalt himself, although he has not always used it. This can be seen on the example of Agamemnon’s words to Menelaus: μὴ λίαν ἄνω βλέφαρα πρὸς τἀναιδὲς ἀγαγών (Iphigenia in Aulis 378). What Agamemnon did towards his brother was not intended to show him his own superiority, although it was possible. ‘Eyes (raised) up’ can mean the feeling of superiority of one person over another. This, however, is a human initiative. It is a completely different matter if it comes from the gods. As Hecuba puts it: εἰ δὲ μὴ θεὸς ἔστρεψε τἄνω περβαλὼν κάτω χθονός (The Trojan Women 1243). The work of the gods is ‘exaltation’ (ἔστρεψε τἄνω) of people, but they can as previously mentioned ‘humiliate, knock the man down’. This idea is present in an earlier fragment of the same tragedy. Hecuba asserts: ὁρῶ τὰ τῶν θεῶν ὡς τὰ μὲν πυργοῦς’ ἄνω τὸ μηδὲν ὄντα τὰ δὲ δοκοῦντ’ ἀπώλεσαν (The Trojan Women 612). A very significant antithesis, also known from the Old Testament: ἐταπείνωσας τὸ ὑψηλὸν καὶ τὸ ταπεινὸν ὕψωσας (Ezek 21:31).105 Although the terminology is different, the idea remains the same: ‘exalted’ (πυργοῦς’ ἄνω) will be what is nothing (τὸ μηδὲν ὄντα) and annihilated (ἀπώλεσαν) what is considered (τὰ δοκοῦντ’) valuable. For the first time in Greek literature we come across this antithesis, well known in the Bible and Biblical literature.

    In conclusion, it should be noted that ἄνω refers to both gods and men. The sphere of dwelling of the former is the space above the earth (Hecuba 791), while the latter dwell on earth (Heracles 616). This adverb was used in both these texts. The state of human existence on earth can be defined by him in relation to other people, by ‘looking from above’ or by ‘exaltation’ (Iphigenia in Aulis 378). It can also be the work of the gods, who make people ‘exalted’ or ‘humiliated’ (The Trojan Women 612, 1243). After the death, man goes down to the underworld and from there he can be led ‘up’ (that is to say, to the earth) by special intervention (Alcestis 853, 986).

    1.3.3.9 ἄνωθεν

    Euripides uses this adverb much less frequently (2 times). It literally means a movement ‘from above’ (Cyclops 323). In a figurative sense, it is similar to one of the meanings of the ἄνω. Theonoe claimed καὶ γὰρ τῶνδ’ ἐστὶ τοῖς τε νερτέροις καὶ τοῖς ἄνωθεν πᾶσιν ἀνθρώποις (Helen 1014). The repayment concerns all people (πᾶσιν ἀνθρώποις), it concerns both those who have already died (τοῖς τε νερτέροις) and those who are alive (τοῖς ἄνωθεν). The context shows that this adverb specifies people who are alive, on earth.

    1.3.3.10 ἐγείρω

    A verb that has a literal meaning in Euripides’ works: a) ‘raise’ lamentation (Electra 125), noise (Orestes 1353); b) ‘awaken’ (Heracles 1050), with a small variant in the intransitive form: ‘to wake up’ (Iphigenia in Aulis 624) and ‘rise up, stand up’ (Medea 1184). This verb is also found in the tragedy Rhesus .106 However, we did not take it into account, as it is now widely considered a work not written by Euripides.107

    1.3.3.11 ἐπαίρω

    In this author’s works it has quite a wide range of meanings, although in most cases it is used literally: a) ‘raise’ something material (Bacchae 789, Hecuba 500, Heracleidae 728, Iphigenia in Tauris 1484, Medea 27, The Suppliants 289); b) ‘make, have’ friends (Andromache 197); c) ‘instigate’ to action (Orestes 286); d) ‘arouse’ anger (Iphigenia in Aulis 125, The Suppliants 581).

    Among the texts in which this verb is to be interpret literally, the phrases ἔπαιρε σεαυτήν and ψυχὴν ἐπαίρει are noteworthy. The first one in some cases simply means to ‘arise’ (Andromache 717, 1077, Ion 727), but in others it takes on a metaphorical meaning of ‘rising, being elevated in spirit’. Consider the words of Admetus to Alcestis: ἔπαιρε σεαυτήν ὦ τάλαινα (Alcestis 250). It follows from the context that Alcestis, through prayer to the gods, helped herself and her husband, Admetus, become elevated spiritually (see Alcestis 251). The words of consolation spoken by the Servant to Iolaus are similar: ἔπαιρέ νυν σεαυτόν ὄρθωσον κάρα (Heracleidae 635). The parallelism of the speech could indicate that Iolaus is to ‘rise up and raise his head’. But the preceding words of Iolaus (see Heracleidae 634) indicate that he is plagued by the ‘spiritual distress’ from which he is to recover. The fragment with the second phrase is similar in its mood. Kopreus, the hero of King Eurystheus says to Demophon: εἴ τι τοῦτό σε ψυχὴν ἐπαίρει (Heracleidae 173). The phrase ψυχὴν ἐπαίρει means ‘strengthening the heart’, and thus gaining the confidence that he will need in ruling Athens in a difficult time of an ordeal.

    Such a use of ἐπαίρω is complemented with another metaphorical text. Peleus says to Menelaus: μόχθοισιν ἄλλων καὶ πόμοις ἐμηρμένοι (Andromache 705). Recalling the expedition of Menelaus and Agamemnon against Troy, Peleus points to the deeds and achievements of others, which ‘raised the two commanders to the top’. In this way we learn that one person can be ‘exalted, elevated to glory’ and through the achievements of others gain a higher social position.

    The analyses demonstrate that this verb in the tragedies of Euripides has above all a literal meaning. In a figurative sense, it can mean: ‘to be elevated’ in spirit (Alcestis 250, Heracleidae 173, 635) or ‘to be raised to glory’ (Andromache 705).

    Summary

    Euripides’ rich vocabulary on exaltation indicates that this was a reality close to his contemporaries. Issues such as achieving a certain social position, exaltation and humiliation by the gods, and the desire to bring a dead person back to life are the leading themes in this regard. All these issues can be divided into two categories: religious and social.

    In the religious category, the place of dwelling of the gods should be mentioned, described by the adverb ἄνω (Hecuba 791). They receive the glory as we learn analysing the adjective ὑψηλός (Electra 6). Yet, sometimes the fear of God must be restored. This is indicated by the use of ἀνίστημι (Heracles 852). The space of human existence is the earth, which is often referred to as ‘above, up’ in opposition to underground Hades: ἄνω (Heracles 616) or ἄνωθεν (Helen 1014). However, man suffers death, and the desire to undo its effects is expressed in various ways, usually by means of verbs or adverbs, presumably because they can express the dynamic character of the return to life: ἀναλαμβάνω (Orestes 292), ἀνίστημι (Alcestis 126, Heracles 719), ἄνω (Alcestis 853, 986).

    The category of height is also present in social and moral life. Here, the first place is given to the social position, which only a few achieve by: birth (τὸ ὕψος; Phoenician Women 404), actions (ἐπαίρω; Andromache 705; ὑψηλός; Heracleidae 322) or the intervention of fortune (ὑψηλός; The Suppliants 555). Often, however, this state is destroyed either by man’s own self-exaltation (ἄνω; Iphigenia in Aulis 378), or by the intervention of gods who exalt the lowly and humiliate the exalted (ἄνω; The Trojan Women 612, 1243; ὑψηλός; Heracleidae 613). The behaviour of a person is also essential; man can take on the suffering of others, put himself (ἀναλαμβάνω) in their situation (Heracles 1005) or save them (ἀνίστημι) from oppression (Alcestis 625). And if he makes any mistakes, sins, he strives to correct them (ἀναλαμβάνω; Ion 426). It should be then emphasised that Euripides made use of a very wide range of uses of terms that describe the category of height and exaltation.

    1.3.4 Aristophanes

    The comic playwright, born in Athens, lived from about 445 to about 385 BC. His father Philip was a peasant, not very wealthy, who received a plot of land on the island of Aegina as a colonist, probably at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War. Aristophanes received a thorough education in Athens. At the age of seventeen he wrote poetry and composed music.108 He staged over forty-five comedies, eleven of which have survived to these times.109The Acharnians , The Knights , The Clouds , The Wasps , Peace , The Birds , Lysistrata , Thesmophoriazusae , The Frogs , Ecclesiazusae (Assemblywomen), Plutus .110 Since antiquity, Aristophanes has been considered a master of comedy, and his language is a classic model of atticism. His works are characterized by dynamic action, vivid imagination, insightful observation of reality, witty dialogue. The comedy intrigue was for Aristophanes often a pretext for satirical presentation of current problems.111

    In all of Aristophanes’ works we come across the terms from the scope of our research. However, their frequency is not uniform; this author definitely more often uses terms with the root ἀνω or the prefix ἀνα and cognates: ἀναβαίνω (9 times), ἀναιρέω (6 times), ἀναλαμβάνω (1 time), ἀνίστημι (19 times), ἄνω (28 times), ἄνωθεν (16 times), ἐγείρω (10 times) and ἐπαίρω (12 times). From the group of terms with the root ὑψο, the works of Aristophanes only include the adjective ὑψηλός (3 times).

    1.3.4.1 ὑψηλός

    This adjective, as we mentioned above, was used by Aristophanes three times. Always as a modifier. The chorus calls the clouds to rise ὑψηλῶν ὀρέων κορυφὰς ἐπὶ δενδροκόμους (The Clouds 279). After the dialogue with the chorus, the hoopoe said: αἱ πόλεις […] ἔμαθον […] ἐκπονεῖν θ’ ὑψηλὰ τείχη τε κακτῆσθαι μακράς (The Birds 379). Heracles told Dionysus: ἀναβὰς ἐπὶ τὸν πύργον φὸν ὑψηλόν (The Frogs 130). So we can see that this adjective modifies the following nouns: τὸ ὄρος τὸ τεῖχος, ὁ πύργος. Moreover, it seems that it has no metaphorical meaning in these texts.

    1.3.4.2 ἀναβαίνω

    A verb used by Aristophanes 9 times. Always in the literal sense: ‘to climb, go up’ (The Acharnians 732, The Frogs 132, The Knights 149, The Wasps 398, 1341). A small variant of meaning can be found in several texts, in which ἀναβαίνω means ‘to enter’ the court (The Wasps 905, 944, 963, 977).

    1.3.4.3 ἀναιρέω

    The term is also used (6 times) by this author in a literal sense: ‘pick up’ an object (Acharnians 810, The Birds 449, The Clouds 981), a person (The Clouds 531, The Wasps 330) or a dead body (The Wasps 386).

    1.3.4.4 ἀναλαμβάνω

    This verb occurs only once and also in a literal sense: ‘gain something’ (Knights 682).

    1.3.4.5 ἀνίστημι

    A verb used slightly more often by Aristophanes (19 times), but also in a literal sense: ‘to get up’ from a seat (The Acharnians 1187, The Clouds 975, Ecclesiazusae 373, 1073, The Frogs 480, 490, Lysistrata 929, Plutus 683, 801, Thesmophoriazusae 384, 643, The Wasps 998) or from sleep (Ecclesiazusae 740, Plutus 738, The Wasps 137, 217, 286). We meet only two variants of meaning: ‘to raise’ fingers (The Wasps 95) and ‘rise’ to vote (The Wasps 754).

    1.3.4.6 ἄνω

    Much more diverse and thus more interesting examples are found in the case of this adverb. In a literal sense, ἄνω means doing something upwards (The Birds 50, 51, 175, 1149, 1671, The Clouds 172, Ecclesiazusae 268, 1111, 1180, The Frogs 420, Lysistrata 117, 1292, Peace 168, Thesmophoriazusae 1223, The Wasps 1526). In this sense, we meet this term in combination with its antonym (κάτω), meaning together a movement in all directions: ἄνω κάτω (The Birds 3, Lysistrata 709), ἄνω καὶ κάτω (The Acharnians 21, The Clouds 616, The Knights 866, Peace 1180, Thesmophoriazusae 647).

    In a metaphorical sense, in certain contexts, this adverb means the sphere of dwelling of the gods. In the comedy The Birds we read the following statement of the Chorus: καθεδούμεθ’ ἄνω σεμνυνόμενοι παρὰ ταῖς νεφέλαις ὥσπερ χὠ Ζεύς (The Birds 727). The meaning of the phrase καθέζομαι ἄνω (‘I sit on high’) is explained in the next stich: παρὰ ταῖς νεφέλαις. It can be interpreted as “sitting above the clouds”, in the space reserved for the gods (ὥσπερ χὠ Ζεύς). Pisthetaerus called Euelpides in a similar way: κήρυκα δὲ πέμψον τὸν μὲν εἰς θεοὺς ἄνω (The Birds 843). In this case, the meaning of the phrase πέμπω ἄνω (‘I send up’) is explained by the words εἰς θεοὺς. So the messenger is to be sent ‘to the gods up’, i.e. to their place of swelling. This meaning is also confirmed by the words of Prometheus: φάσω σοι πάντα τἄνω πράγματα (The Birds 1507). The phrase itself would be incomprehensible but for the words with which the hero continues to argue: ὡς ἃν μή μ’ ὁρῶσιν οἱ θεοί (The Birds 1509). These ‘deeds done on high’ or ‘what is done on high’ are actions taken by the gods. So once again, ἄνω means the space belonging to the gods. In the same dialogue with Pisthetaerus, Prometheus reports: Ἥξουσι πρέσβεις δεῦρο περὶ διαλλαγῶν παρὰ τοῦ Διὸς καὶ τῶν Τριβαλλῶν τῶν ἄνω (The Birds 1533). The origin of the messengers (ἄνω) was explained by means of the words: παρὰ τοῦ Διὸς καὶ τῶν Τριβαλλῶν. As for Zeus, we have no doubt that he is a god living in the upper realms. The Triballians, on the other hand, are barbaric deities (cf. 1528–1529), which also dwell on high. A similar meaning of ἄνω is presented to us by Aristophanes also in the comedy The Clouds . Socrates here explains to Strepsiades: εἰ δ’ ὣν χαμαὶ τἄνω κάτωθεν ἐσκόπουν οὐκ ἄν ποθ’ ηὗρον (The Clouds 231). The phrase τὰ ἄνω is definitely an ellipse of a term (e.g.τὰ ἔργα). But what ‘works, things’ are mentioned here? That is explained in Strepsiades’ previous question: “Are you looking down on the gods from above, from the basket?”112 (The Clouds 226). So this adverb once again defines the space in which the gods reside. In another comedy (Peace ) we find the same meaning. Trigaios comments on one of the ladies: παρὰ τοῖς θεοῖσιν ἀμβροσίαν λείχειν ἄνω (Peace 854). The meaning of both the whole comment and this term seems clear. It is about ‘licking ambrosia’ on high, among the gods.

    The above analysis shows that Aristophanes, apart from the literal meaning of ἄνω, also knew its figurative meaning. By combining it with both verbs and other parts of speech, he assigns to it a meaning that defines the place of dwelling of the gods.

    1.3.4.7 ἄνωθεν

    The adverb, used by Aristophanes much less frequently (16 times), presents several interesting semantic fields. In a literal sense, it defines an activity performed ‘from above’ to below (The Birds 844, 1002, 1509, Ecclesiazusae 698, Knights 313, Peace 225, The Wasps 204, 817). However, in some texts it is used as a synonym for ἄνω and then it stands for an action performed ‘up’ (The Acharnians 433, The Birds 1551, Ecclesiazusae 1108, Peace 1243) or ‘upwards’ (Thesmophoriazusae 1181).

    In a figurative sense, ἄνωθεν always means the place the gods reside. Prometheus in an interview with Pisthetaerus observes that the hungry barbaric deities κεκριγότες ἐπιστρατεύσειν φάσ’ ἄνωθεν τῷ Διί (The Birds 1522). The meaning of both the whole sentence and this adverb seems clear. Zeus is threatened by the armed intervention of the barbarian deities ‘from above’ (ἄνωθεν). The statement is explained by another fragment of the same comedy in which Pisthetaerus asks: ἐισὶν γὰρ ἕτεροι βάρβαροι θεοί τινες ἄνωθεν ὑμῶν (The Birds 1526). Considering this text, the barbaric deities dwell ‘up’ (ἄνωθεν), above the speakers.113 A similar meaning can be found in what Trigaius said: μιχροὶ δ’ ὁρᾶν ἄνωθεν ἦστ’ (Peace 821). The sense of ὁρᾶν ἄνωθεν (‘look down’) is explained in the previous context, when the protagonist starts his speech with words: “How hard it was to get to the gods!” 114 (Peace 819). Once again, this adverb describes the space of dwelling of the gods.

    Aristophanes was familiar with the figurative meaning of ἄνωθεν. he made use of it to describe both the space where the gods live (The Birds 1526) and the fact that from there specific actions can be carried out (The Birds 1522). Which, by the way, is not reserved exclusively for the gods (Peace 821).

    1.3.4.8 ἐγείρω

    The verb, which in Aristophanes’ works is almost always synonymous with ἀνίστημι, in the transitive form: ‘wake up’ (Lysistrata 18, Plutus 541, 740, 744) and the intransitive form: ‘get up, wake up’ (The Clouds 9, The Frogs 340, The Wasps 395, 774) However, the latter sense we come across in one interesting text. In the comedy Lysistrata the Chorus of Old Men announces: τουτὶ τὸ πῦρ ἐγρήγορεν θεῶν ἕκατι καὶ ζῇ (Lysistrata 306). This phrase is remarkable because it combines two verbs (ἐγείρω and ζῶ) in a causal consequence – the fire ‘woke up’ (ἐγρήγορεν) and ‘lives’ (ζῇ).

    Finally, one more use of this verb in a figurative sense is worth mentioning. In the comedy Ecclesiazusae the Chorus calls Praxagora: νῦν δὴ δεῖ σε πυκνὴν φγένα καὶ φιλόσοφον ἐγείρειν (Ecclesiazusae 571). This verb means a call to seek “something wise” (φιλόσοφον ἐγείρειν).

    It is noticeable that the range of meaning of ἐγείρω in Aristophanes’ works is common for the literature of the time. The only meaning not yet encountered is a result of the combination of two verbs (see Lysistrata 306), the first of which (ἐγείρω) means an action that leads to the existence of a fact expressed by the second verb (ζῶ). The effect of the waking up (ἐγρήγορεν) of fire is its life (ζῇ).

    1.3.4.9 ἐπαίρω

    Aristophanes used this verb 12 times. In a literal sense, in an intransitive form it means ‘to rise’ (Lysistrata 938). It occurs in combination with the personal pronoun: ἔπαιρε σαθτόν (Lysistrata 937, The Wasps 996).

    However, it usually has a figurative meaning. Most often it means ‘to induce, to excite’ (The Birds 1657, The Clouds 42, 809, 1457, The Frogs 1041, Lysistrata 623). It also has other meanings, both positive and pejorative. In a positive sense, Pisthetaerus declares: ὑπὸ γὰρ λόγων ὁ ωοῦς τε μετεωρίζεται ἐπαίρεταί τ’ ἄνθρωπος (The Birds 1448), which can be construed as the elevation, the improvement of man. Pisthetaerus concludes his speech with: “So do I want to give you wings with knowledge, bring you up to legitimate occupation”115 (The Birds 1448–1450). In a negative sense, it refers to ‘being haughty, conceited’. This sense is obvious in Aeacus’ words about Euripides: κἄπειτ’ ἐπαρθεὶς ἀντελάβετο τοῦ τθόνου ἵν’ Αἰσχύλος καθῆστο (The Frogs 777). From an earlier statement (cf. The Frogs 758–776) it follows that ἐπαίρω in this context means ‘to become conceited, to show off, to claim someone’s place’. In this particular case, Euripides claimed the place of Aeschylus. In another fragment we find a statement about, as the chorus says, ‘your poet’, who was highly praised and honoured more than any poet before, yet οὐκ ἐκτελέσαι φησὶν ἐπαρθείς (The Wasps 1024). For the second time, this verb means ‘boasting, exaltation’.

    Summary

    Most of the terms describing the category of height and exaltation in Aristophanes’ works have a literal meaning. Only four in some sense describe the reality of heights in religious or moral categories. As in the case of other authors discussed so far, two adverbs (ἄνω and ἄνωθεν) define the place of dwelling of the gods (The Birds 727, 1526) and their actions (The Birds 1507, 1522, 1533) or the actions of heroes towards them (The Birds 843, The Clouds 231, Peace 854, 821). With regard to a person, ἐπαίρω means ‘exaltation, boasting’, in a pejorative sense (The Frogs 777) or in the case this attitude is denied (The Wasps 1024). In relation to the things, but in combination with another verb we find ἐγείρω. It stands for the ‘revival, awakening’ of fire and its ‘life’ (Lysistrata 306).

    ***

    In the history of Greek literature, the drama flourished for a shorter period in comparison with other literary genres. The period only lasted three centuries. The work of the four authors offers a rich terminology describing the category of height and exaltation in relation to both gods and people.

    1) In relation to the world of gods there are numerous terms describing six equal realities. First, Zeus as the most high and supreme god, already known from lyric, took centre stage. This belief was expressed primarily by an adjective in the superlative: ὕψιστος. By means of this adjective this god is directly (ὕψιστον Δία; Aeschylus, The Eumenides 28) and indirectly portrayed, with the fear of him being considered supreme. (ὕψιστος […] φόβος; Aeschylus, The Suppliants 479). Furthermore, ‘the highest glory of Zeus’ receives mention (Ζηνὸς ὑψίστου σέβας; Sophocles, Philoctetes 1289). It is also noteworthy that the place of worship of Zeus was described as ὕψιστον πάγον – the ‘highest’, that is ‘sacred’ hill (Sophocles, The Trachiniae 1191).

    The category of height was applied to describe the place from which Zeus springs into action. The adverb used here is ὑψόθεν. It is from there that the god most high ‘watches and looks’ (Aeschylus, The Suppliants 381) and ‘listens’ (Aeschylus, The Suppliants 175).

    Similarly, the space where Zeus and other gods dwell was depicted by means of the adverb ἄνω. Thus, Apollo portrayed Zeus as someone whose scope of actions is not limited by anything: he operates high above and down below (ἄνω τε καὶ κάτω; Aeschylus, The Eumenides 650). In turn Electra calls Hermes “a messenger of those on high and those below” (τῶν ἄνω τε καὶ κάτω; Aeschylus, The Libation Bearers 124). In a somewhat less clear way, Electra asked in the subsequent fragment that the good be sent ‘from above’ (ἄνω; Aeschylus, The Libation Bearers 147). It can be probably interpreted as the good coming from the gods on high. Likewise, the gods to whom the body of Polynices does not belong were defined in general (τοῖς ἄνω θεοῖσιν; Sophocles, Antigone 1072). The place to which the Philoctetes is heading, in the drama under the same title, was twice defined by the adverb ἄνω. Both texts mention ‘celestial spheres’ (ὁ ἄνω κύκλος), the place of the dwelling of the gods (Sophocles, Philoctetes 814 and 815). Sometimes the authors present two spheres where the deities dwell: for example Euripides in one of his tragedies, in which he expressed the regret that Polymestor lacked the fear of the underground and heavenly gods (τοὺς γῆς νέρθεν οὔτε τοὺς ἄνω δείσας; Euripides, Hecuba 791). Aristophanes in his comedies shared the conviction that the gods ‘live on high’ (Aristophanes, The Birds 727; 843; Peace 854), from where they operate (Aristophanes, The Birds 1507; 1533; The Clouds 231).

    The adverb under investigation, although often used by Greek playwrights, is not the only one to describe the space in which the gods reside. Another adverb was used for this purpose: ἄνωθεν. For Zeus is not afraid of any of the gods sitting ‘on high’ (ἄνωθεν; Aeschylus, The Suppliants 597). And the gods look down on the earth from there (ἄνωθεν; Aeschylus, Agamemnon 1579; Aristophanes, Peace 821). According to Prometheus, Zeus is threatened ‘from above’ (ἄνωθεν) with the danger of armed intervention by barbarian deities (Aristophanes, The Birds 1522; 1526).

    Man can enter the world of the gods through sacrifice, or more precisely, through ‘raising’ (ἐπαίρω; Sophocles, Electra 634) the offering ‘upwards’ (ἄνω; Sophocles, The Trachiniae 1192).

    Man can also direct inquiries to the deity and await answers. Such an answer usually comes through a soothsayer. In literature, such an answer is usually formulated with the verb ἀναιρέω (see Euripides, Iphigenia in Aulis 90).

    In a situation where the reputation of the gods was damaged, man should try to restore (ἀνίστημι) the fear of the gods (Euripides, Heracles 852).

    2) In relation to the human world (in the physical sense), there are equally numerous concepts describing three distinct realities. Similarly to the space of dwelling of the gods, there is the sphere of human existence. Interestingly, exactly the same adverbs are used here: ἄνω and ἄνωθεν. Their meaning depends on the context. The earthly existence of humans is mentioned in the texts of Sophocles (ἄνω; Antigone 889, 1068, Electra 1167, Oedipus Tyrannus 416, Philoctetes 1348) and Euripides (ἄνω; Heracles 616; ἄνωθεν; Helen 1014).

    Man can find himself in a difficult life situation and take action to restore the previous situation, to rectify his misconduct. This is how the use of ἀναλαμβάνω in some texts can be understood (Sophocles, Philoctetes 1248; Euripides, Ion 426). People may also need consolation, exaltation. This is rendered in turn by the verb ἐπαίρω (Euripides, Alcestis 250; Heracleidae 173, 635; Aristophanes, The Birds 1448) and the adverb ὑψοῦ (Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus 914).

    3) In relation to the human world (in the moral sense), we find three other terms which express two opposing human attitudes. Anyone can be exalted – people’s acts can be exalted, highly praised (ὑψηλός), like the conduct of Demophon (Euripides, Heracleidae 322). Man himself can be exalted (ἐπαίρω) through his glorious deeds (Euripides, Andromache 705). This state (ἄνω) may also be the result of the action of gods (Euripides, The Trojan Women 1243).

    Nevertheless, everyone must be careful that his actions never lead to excessive pride. Three authors use different terms to depict such a situation: ὑψηλός (Sophocles, Ajax 1230), ἄνω (Euripides, Iphigenia in Aulis 378), ἐπαίρω (Aristophanes, The Frogs 777).

    Whatever the circumstances, every person can expect the opposite fate. Euripides expressed this in two different ways (using the adjective ὑψηλός and the adverb ἄνω). In Heracleidae, the bravery of Makaria, daughter of Heracles, is extolled; she agreed to die to ensure the victory of Demophon’s army. The chorus speaks significant words: “Fate […] from the heights of happiness, throws to poverty” (μοῖρα […] τὸν μὲν αφ’ ὑψηλῶν βραχύν ὤκισε; Heracleidae 613). In The Trojan Women it is stated twice that the ‘exaltation’ (ἔστρεψε τἄνω) is the work of the gods (The Trojan Women 1243). They can also, as already mentioned in this text, ‘humiliate, knock a man down’. This idea is present in an earlier fragment of the same tragedy (The Trojan Women 612). As already mentioned in the summary to Euripides’ work, this antithesis is also known from the Old Testament: ἐταπείνωσας τὸ ὑψηλὸν καὶ τὸ ταπεινὸν ὕψωσας (Ezek 21:31). Although in a different terminology, the idea remains the same: what is nothing (τὸ μηδὲν ὄντα) will be ‘raised up’ (πυργοῦς ἄνω) and what is considered (τὰ δοκοῦντ’) valuable will be annihilated (ἀπώλεσαν).

    4) In relation to the after-death existence of man, a series of terms is used to present two realities: two spheres of existence after death and the raising of the dead or resurrection. Although the meaning of the description of the first reality, two spheres of human existence after death, as expressed in the phrase ἄνωθεν is not certain. Given the context, we can assert with some probability that the reference to living on earth, above, means being alive (ἄνωθεν), while staying below means being dead (κάτω) (Aeschylus, Agamemnon 871).

    The idea of bringing the dead back to life is much better documented. By using the verb ἀνίστημι the authors clearly express doubts about the possibility of resurrection (Aeschylus, Agamemnon 569; Sophocles, Electra 137–139) or raising from the dead (Aeschylus, Agamemnon 1361). For all that, the very idea of bringing someone back to life (if only in the hypothetical and literary sphere) was known to Greek playwrights. This is confirmed by Euripides attributing to Heracles the power of resurrecting (ἀνίστημι) he dead (see Euripides, Alcestis 126; 1008nn; Heracles 719).

    The same problem occurs with the noun ἡ ἀνάστασις. Apollo explicitly expressed doubts about the possibility of resurrection: ἅπαξ θανόντος οὔτις ἔστ’ ἀνάστασις (Aeschylus, The Eumenides 647).

    We have a slightly different situation with the adverb ἄνω. In Aeschylus’ The Persians, the chorus summons the earth and the ruler of the underworld to ‘let Darius go up’ (πέμπετε δ’ ἄνω), and thus allow him to return to life (Aeschylus, The Persians 645).116 The story of Alcestis in Euripides’ tragedy of the same title has a similar meaning. First, Heracles expresses the theoretical possibility of coming back to life, literally ‘being led up’ (ἄξειν ἄνω Ἄκληστιν) in the case of the protagonist (Euripides, Alcestis 853). In the following parts, the chorus doubts this possibility that the protagonist may, literally, ‘be led up’ (ἀνάγω ἄνω) (Euripides, Alcestis 986).

    A similar idea is expressed by a phrase with the verb ἀναλαμβάνω. Orestes utters words of complaint that it is impossible to ‘restore light’ (ἀναλαβεῖν ἔμελλε φῶς), that is, to raise his father, Agamemnon, from the dead (Euripides, Orestes 292).

    We can see that the idea of the resurrection/raising from the dead was well known to the Greeks. It is only the implementation of this idea that was debatable.

    The Hellenic culture was for centuries a culture of the spoken word. From the very beginning of literature, the power of verbal argumentation in convincing listeners or readers was very much appreciated.117 Rhetoric as an art was born in the agora. The assemblies and courts were to become forever the places where the speakers were to demonstrate oratorical proficiency. Over time, the art of speaking became an element of Greek education, and even one of the subjects taught at schools preparing for public functions. Ancient scholars called rhetoric the queen of all sciences.118

    In classical Greek rhetoric we distinguish between three types of speech: political (deliberative), judicial (forensic) and epideictic (ceremonial). The last was first used as Funeral Orations in honour of the fallen heroes; among its precursors are the Sicilians, Corax and Tisias, who in the 5th century BC wrote the first textbook of rhetoric. Gorgias of Leontinoi (ca. 485–380) was Tisias’ student and an eminent sophist and excellent speaker. His fragmentarily preserved works119 did not allow us to analyse his contribution to the development of terminology describing the category of height and exaltation. In this research we have therefore focused on the period when Greek rhetoric flourished (5th and 4th centuries BC) and analysed the speeches of five great artists: Lysias, Isocrates, Isaeus, Aeschines and Demosthenes.

    1.4.1 Lysias

    He was born around 450 BC in Athens, in the family of Cephalus, a rich Syracusan. He lived in Piraeus with his brother until his father died (around 430). Then he left for Thurii in southern Italy. After 412, he returned to Athens. A few years later, the Thirty Tyrants (around 404) imposed repressive measures against the citizens, including arrests, confiscations of property and executions on a large scale. Lysias managed to escape this persecution by escaping to Megara, but his brother, Polemarchus, was sentenced to death and their property confiscated. Lysias, partly with a view of avenging his brother’s death, partly because he hoped to recover the property, supported the democrats who regained power around 403. At that time, Thrasybulus requested at the ecclesia that the orator be granted Athenian citizenship. The application did not pass and Lysias remained a metoic (a foreign citizen resident of Athens).120

    As an orator he could not play a significant role in politics because of the lack of Athenian citizenship. Therefore, he undertook writing judicial speeches for others. Shortly, he became the most popular logographer, which even particularly talented competitors like Isocrates could not match. In antiquity, Lysias was attributed with more than four hundred speeches. But probably only nineteen thirty-three were actually authored by him. To our times, the so-called Corpusculum has been preserved, which contains thirty four speeches: twenty-five complete, the rest in fragments. Only two of them (II and XXXIII) are not judicial.121 He wrote his speeches between 409 and 382 BC, of which eighteen seem of importance for our research into the terminology describing height and exaltation. These terms were used by Lisias in:122 I. On the murder of Eratosthenes ; II. Funeral Oration ; VI. Against Andocides ; IX. For the soldier ; X. Against Theomnestus 1 ; XI. Against Theomnestus 2 ; XII. Against Eratosthenes ; XIII. Against Agoratus ; XIV. Against Alcibiades 1; XV. Against Alcibiades 2; XVI. In defense of Mantitheus ; XIX. On the property of Aristophanes ; XX. For Polystratus ; XXI. Defense Against a Charge of Taking Bribes ; XXII. Against the Corn-Dealers ; XXIV. On the Refusal of a Pension ; XXXI. Against Philon ; XXXII. Against Diogeiton .123

    The terms with the root ὑψο do not appear in these speeches. However, from the group with the prefix ἀνα or the root ἀνω and cognates, we encounter: ἀναβαίνω (28 times), ἀναιρέω (4 times), ἀνίστημι (9 times), ἄνω (3 times) and ἐπαίρω (8 times).

    1.4.1.1 ἀναβαίνω

    In Lysias’s speeches, it has only literal meaning: ‘to appear’ to testify in court (I.29; I.42; XII.24; XII.47; XIII.64; XIV.16; XV.2; XVI.8; XVI.13; XVI.14; XVI.17; XX.29; XXII.5; XXXII.18; XXXII.27), ‘to mount’ a horse (II.4; XIV.10 [× 2]; XVI.13; XXIV.5; XXIV.11 [× 2]; XXIV.12 [× 2], ‘to board’ a ship (XXI.7; XXI.8) and ‘to climb’ a mountain (I.23). In particular, but also literally, it means ‘to ascend’ the Areopagus (X.11).

    1.4.1.2 ἀναιρέω

    The verb occurs in this author’s work entirely in a literal sense: ‘to kill, to destroy’ (X.28; XI.10; XIX.64), ‘to pick up, to catch’ (XII.36).

    1.4.1.3 ἀνίστημι

    The literal meaning is usually ‘to arise’ (I.13), particularly, with the purpose of ‘taking the floor’ (XII.73; XII.74; XIII.8; XIII.9; XXII.2; XXII.3). Lysias used it also once to refer to ‘rebuilding’ walls (II.63). It is worth noting one of the speeches in which ἀνίστημι has a literal sense, though the context indicates a special place from which the main defendant, Agoratus, is to ‘arise’. This is the thirteenth speech Against Agoratus on immediate imprisonment. Leaving aside the whole question of Athenian intrigue against this person, the point is that Agoratus, seeking shelter, was to sit as a suppliant on the altar of Artemis in Munichia124 and from there he ‘arose’ voluntarily: ἑκὼν ἀνέστη Ἀγόρατος ἀπὸ τοῦ βωμοῦ (XIII.29). In all this procedure, the ritual of sitting on the altar as a place of refuge seems interesting. The purpose of this ritual was probably to seek the protection of the god against those accusing the suppliant. The altar would then be a place of asylum, as was the case in Israeli culture.125

    1.4.1.4 ἄνω

    An adverb not very often used by Lysias (3 times); in two places it has a literal meaning (‘above, aloft’) and combines with the verbs: ἔχω (I.9) and διαιτάω (I.9). In Funeral Oration, however, we find it in combination with the adverb κάτω in the phrase referring to gods: τοὺς δὲ κάτω οὐ κομίζεσθαι, ἱερῶν δὲ μιαινομένων τοὺς ἄνω θεοὺς ἀσεβεῖσθαι (II.7). A glance at Greek mythology allows us to see that the world of the gods was divided into several spheres: Olympus, the earth, the sea, the underworld. Consider the fact that in the oration under investigation the bodies of the dead, if not buried, make the underground gods (οἱ κάτω θεοί) not receive proper reverence (οὐ κομίζεσθαι, and the temples of the earthly gods (οἱ ἄνω θεοί) be desecrated (ἀσεβεῖσθαι).126 It seems, therefore, that the corresponding adverbs refer to the space of dwelling of underground (κάτω) and earthly (ἄνω) gods respectively. Whether these fragments mention the household gods or the gods of Olympus, the earth and the sea combined, it is difficult to decide. Certainly, the meaning of this adverb is religious.

    1.4.1.5 ἐπαίρω

    In the works of this author, this verb has once the literal meaning ‘to raise, lift, deliver’ (VI.49), but usually it means ‘to encourage’ or ‘to be elevated, conceited’. The second meaning has a positive sense (see I.36; IX.19; IX.21; XVI.21; XXI.19; XXXI.2), the third pejorative (although Lysias used it in a negative sentence; see II.10). We can conclude that in all the texts this verb describes human behaviour, whether in the sense of physical activity or encouragement to act properly, or to avoid pride.

    Summary

    Three terms come to the fore in Lysias’ orations. Two of them describe divine reality, one characterizes human action. The space of dwelling of the gods is clearly defined by the adverbs ἄνω and κάτω, but the former defines the deities that dwell on earth, the latter in the underground (II.7). This sphere also extends to the temple with its altar. It was a kind of asylum for criminals. Sitting on it protected the suppliant, while arising from it (ἀνίστημι) resulted in a loss of this privilege (XIII.29). Humans in their everyday activities could be ‘encouraged’ (ἐπαίρω) to positive action (I.36; IX.19; IX.21; XVI.21; XXI.19; XXXI.2) or to loftiness over others (II.10). As we can see, in spite of scanty vocabulary in terms of height and exaltation, there are religious (concerning deities) and moral (concerning people) ideas present in Lysias’ works.

    1.4.2 Isocrates

    The son of the owner of the craft factory lived between 436–338 BC. He was a disciple of the sophists, Socrates, the rhetor Gorgias, and the politician Theramenes. Although he hardly ever delivered speeches, he became an outstanding orator and theorist of rhetoric. He began his literary activity in 403 BC by writing judicial speeches, six of which have survived. He earned his living as a logographer until he founded his own rhetorical school in 390 BC.127 Isocrates’ School was Europe’s first comprehensive school to prepare students for state positions.128 Isocrates demanded that the orator influence the audience with his high moral standing and personal dignity. He considered these features to be particularly effective means of persuasion. He took over the rhetorical art from Gorgias and passed it on to Demosthenes, who attained absolute mastery in it.

    The works of Isocrates129 can be divided into six groups: a) judicial speeches; b) epideictic speeches; c) rhetorical programme speeches; d) political speeches; e) hortatory orations, and f) letters. The judicial speeches include:130 XXI. Against Euthynus ; XVIII. Against Callimachus ; XX. Against Lochites ; XVII. Trapeziticus ; XVI. On the Yoke ; XIX. Aegineticus . There are only two Isocrates’ epideictic orations preserved: X. Economium of Helen ; XI. Busiris . The rhetorical program was presented in two program speeches: XIII. Against the Sophists ; XV. On the Antidosis . There are seven political speeches: IV. Panegyricus ; XIV. Plataicus ; VI. Archidamus ; VIII. On the Peace ; VII. Areopagiticus ; V. Philippus ; XII. Panathenaicus . There are also three hortatory orations: II. To Nicocles ; III. Nicocles or the Cyprians ; IX. Evagoras .131 The last attracted the greatest attention of literary historians; it is given as an example of the first acclaim of a historical figure in prosaic literature. Moreover, to Isocrates’ legacy, nine letters should be added. It ought to be noted that the origin of some of these works (especially letters) from Isocrates is questionable, first of all the oration: I. To Demonicus .132

    No terms with the root ὑψο appear in these speeches. In almost all the others, we find terms significant from our perspective, with the exception of: To Demonicus (not authentic), To Nikocles and Aegineticus . In the others, the following terms from the group with the prefix ἀνα or the root ἀνω and cognates were used: ἀναβαίνω (9 times), ἀναιρέω (30 times), ἀναλαμβάνω (11 times), ἀνίστημι (11 times), ἐγείρω (1 time) and ἐπαίρω (10 times).

    1.4.2.1 ἀναβαίνω

    A verb not often used by Isocrates; in his speeches it has two essential meanings, both figurative in a sense. The first means ‘to ascend’ (ἀναβαίνω) the Areopagus, i.e. to join the council (VII. Areopagiticus133 38; XII. Panathenaicus 154) or the congregation (VIII. On the Peace 152). The second meaning refers to the appearance or invitation to appear as a witness at the tribunal: XV. On the Antidosis 164; XVII. Trapeziticus 14.32.37.41 . The literal meaning is: ‘to enter, ascend’ (see XX. Against Lochites 22). Thus, there is no special theological or even religious meaning of this term in the orations of this author.

    1.4.2.2 ἀναιρέω

    This verb is much richer both in terms of its use by Isocrates (30 times) and in terms of its meaning. It has at least three literal and five metaphorical meanings. Literally it means: ‘to rise, to take away’ (cf. V. Philippus 66; VII. Areopagiticus 45; VIII. On the Peace 44.113; XII. Panathenaicus 19.112.267 ; XV. On the Antidosis 242) or ‘to return’ (cf. IV. Panegyricus 63.176), or ‘to recover, restore’ (cf. IV. Panegyricus 55; VIII. On the Peace 99; XII. Panathenaicus 169; XIV. Plataicus 53).

    In a figurative sense, it often means: ‘to destroy, kill’, (cf. VI. Archidamus 89; VII. Areopagiticus 67; XII. Panathenaicus 157), ‘to incite’ a war (cf. IV. Panegyricus 58; XIV. Plataicus 17; XV. On the Antidosis 118) and ‘to undertake, establish’ something (cf. VII. Areopagiticus 8; XVII. Trapeziticus 31.32 [× 2]). There are also two other metaphorical meanings which in some sense are related to the issue under investigation. The first one appears in two consecutive political speeches (IV. Panegyricus , VI. Archidamus ); by means of ἀναιρέω the oracle of Apollo answered: ὅ τε θεὸς ἀναιρεῖ (IV. Panegyricus 31); ἀνελόντος δὲ τοῦ θεοῦ (VI. Archidamus 24). If no answer is given by the oracle: ὁ δὲ θεὸς περὶ μὲν ὧν ἐπηρώτησαν οὐ ἀνεῖλεν (VI. Archidamus 17); τοῖς μὲν οὐδὲν ἀνεῖλεν (VI. Archidamus 31). Another meaning is related to the Olympic Games and describes the receipt of the prize for victory: ἐν τοῖς ἀγῶσι τὰς νίκας ἀναιρουμένων (VI. Archidamus 95).

    It seems that these two meanings are slightly broader than the others. The first, similarly to other texts, not only rhetorical, describes the activity of ‘giving the answer by the oracle’ to a question addressed to a deity. The second one refers to the well-known then comparison between life and the Olympic Games, or more strictly to the victory achieved in competitions.

    1.4.2.3 ἀναλαμβάνω

    Another of the verbs used by Isocrates in the context of height or exaltation. In this case, however, it literally means ‘to pick up, to take’ (see III. Nikocles or the Cyprians 28; V. Philippus 29).

    Much more important, however, is the prevailing metaphorical sense, having essentially two meanings: ‘to cool down, to pull through’ (in relation to man – V. Philippus 22; VI. Archidamus 40.104; in relation to the city – XII. Panathenaicus 58) and ‘to recover’ something people had before. The latter is much more interesting for us, as it remains in an ethical context at least in some aspects. And so, in oration sixth the attempts to regain respect, honor (ἡ τιμή) and power by governments (ἡ δυναστεία) was described as follows: περαθῆναι τὰς τιμὰς καὶ τὰς δυναστείας ἀναλαβεῖν (VI. Archidamus 82). Similar words describe the desire to regain democracy (ἡ δημεκρατία) established by Solon: ἐθελήσωμεν ἐκείνην τὴν δημεκρατίαν ἀναλαβεῖν (VII. Areopagiticus 16). Isocrates wrote similarly on regaining power (ἡ δύναμις): καὶ τὴν δύναμιν ἀναληψόμεθα πάλιν (VIII. On the Peace 6). This verb, however, refers not only to the recovery of material things, but also to things that are abstract in a sense, like ‘glory’ (ἡ δόξα). This applies to the glory of the ancestors: τὴν δόξαν τὴν τῶν προγόνων ἀναλαβεῖν (VIII. On the Peace 141). However, it may equally well concern the city regaining its former glory: τῆς τε παλαιᾶς δόξης μέρος τι πάλιν ἀνέλαβε (IX. Evagoras 56).

    We can see quite clearly that the dominant meaning of this verb is ‘to recover’ something that was previously possessed, whether by a human being or an entire city or country. It seems interesting that ἀναλαμβάνω refers to the glory (ἡ δόξα), which in Isocrates’ texts appears to mean something more than just material power and authority.

    1.4.2.4 ἀνίστημι

    The term was used by Isocrates only 11 times, yet it has as many as five different meanings, none of which, however, contributes to our research. The first and the second meaning, the least frequent, is ‘to rebuild’ (cf. XVI. On the Yoke 40) and ‘to displace, evict’ (cf. VIII. On the Peace 42). Almost as rare is: ‘to get up’ (cf. VI. Archidamus 2; X. Economium of Helen 64). Slightly more frequent, although in the previously quoted literature it was not the prevailing meaning of ἀνίστημι, is ‘to be destroyed, devastated’ (cf. III. Nicocles or the Cyprians 23; IV. Panegyricus 126.144.181 ; V. Philippus 44; VI. Archidamus 43; XV. On the Antidosis 127). As we notice, none of these meanings have any reference to the category of height or exaltation in a religious or moral sense.

    1.4.2.5 ἐγείρω

    A word used only once in the speeches of this orator. It has a metaphorical meaning in the sense of taking action anew: πάλιν ἤγειρον τὸ πρᾶγμα (XVI. On the Yoke 7), however, of no significance to our investigations.

    1.4.2.6 ἐπαίρω

    The prevailing meaning of this verb is actually ‘to excite, to incite, to arouse’ (IV. Panegyricus 108; V. Philippus 10; VIII. On the Peace 105; XI. Busiris 47; XVII. Trapeziticus 35.46; XVIII. Against Callimachus 17.43 ; XXI. Against Euthynus 12). Only in speech XXI. Against Euthynus (12) it was assigned the meaning ‘to bring action’ against someone. However, none of these texts is of importance for our investigations.

    Summary

    From this research into Isocrates’ works, it is clear that only two of the terms he used are somehow related to the reality of height or exaltation. The first is the verb ἀναιρέω, which describes the answer given by a deity (Apollo) through its oracle (IV. Panegyricus 31; VI. Archidamus 17.24.31 ). The same verb also refers to ethical values, or more precisely to life, which was compared to winning a prize in the Olympic Games (VI. Archidamus 95). In a similar sense the second term was used: ἀναλαμβάνω – this time it is not a matter of gaining but of regaining lost values, be it material (VI. Archidamus 82; VII. Areopagiticus 16; VIII. On the Peace 6) or intangible (VIII. On the Peace 141; IX. Evagoras 56).

    1.4.3 Isaeus

    He lived between 420 and 340. He was the son of Diagoras, he came from Chalcis in Euboea. He is said to have been a student of Isocrates, and later a teacher of Demosthenes. He is one of the ten Attic Orators, a logographer, a follower of Lysias’ style. He reportedly authored sixty-four speeches,134 of which only fifty are considered authentic. We know the titles of fifty-six, but only twelve, concerning inheritance, have survived to these times.135 We will analyse nine speeches, in which the terms referring to exaltation can be found. These include: I. On the Estate of Cleonymus , II. On the Estate of Menecles , IV. On the Estate of Nicostratus , V. On the Estate of Dicaeogenes , VI. On the Estate of Philoctemon , VII. On the Estate of Apollodorus , IX. On the Estate of Astyphilus , X. On the Estate of Aristarchus , XI. On the Estate of Hagnias .136

    In the works of Isaeus, no terms are found with the root ὑψο; however, the following terms from the group with the prefix ἀνα or the root ἀνω and cognates were used: ἀναβαίνω (3 times), ἀναιρέω (13 times), ἀναλαμβάνω (1 time), ἀνίστημι (2 times).

    1.4.3.1 ἀναβαίνω

    A verb used only three times by Isaeus. In all cases it stands for the appearance of witnesses (οἱ μαρτύρες) to give evidence (II. On the Estate of Menecles 33; IX. On the Estate of Astyphilus 28; XI. On the Estate of Hagnias 4).

    1.4.3.2 ἀναιρέω

    This term has a plethora of meanings. Most often (9 times), Isaeus uses it to refer to the invalidation (ἀνελεῖν) of the will (singularis: τὴν διαθήκην; pluralis: τάς διαθήκας).137 More rarely, this verb means ‘to incur’ enmity (I. On the Estate of Cleonymus 9); ‘to take’ the dead body (IV. On the Estate of Nicostratus 19); ‘kill’ (VII. On the Estate of Apollodorus 32.42).

    As for the first meaning, its sense would be developed later by Demosthenes,138 but as we can see Isaeus used it quite often. ‘The invalidation, annulment of will’ (ἀνελεῖν τὴν διαθήκην/τάς διαθήκας) brings to mind the text from the letter to the Colossians: ἐξαλείψας τὸ καθ᾽ ἡμῶν χειρόγραφον τοῖς δόγμασιν (Col 2:14). However, it is not difficult to notice that with regard to the terms used,139 these texts do not correspond to each other. Yet the juxtaposition, so characteristic of the speeches delivered in cases concerning the inheritance, is noteworthy.

    1.4.3.3 ἀναλαμβάνω

    The term, which generally means ‘to take, to take away, to lift’, in the only text in which it was used by Isaeus, describes the act of taking the inheritance (ἀνέλαβε) by Dicaeogenes, to which he became entitled as a result of a court’s ruling (V. On the Estate of Dicaeogenes [hypothesis]).

    1.4.3.4 ἀνίστημι

    Another verb rarely used by this author (2 times). In both cases it was used in the intransitive form in the sense ‘to arise, to rise’ (VI. On the Estate of Philoctemon 35) and ‘to cease’. (VI. On the Estate of Philoctemon 19). So there is no metaphorical meaning in the orations of Isaeus.

    Summary

    The terminology regarding exaltation and height is not particularly rich in Isaeus’ orations. The terms he used usually have a literal meaning. Only in the nine fragments with the verb ἀναιρέω can we see some interesting shades of meanings: the invalidation, annulment of the will (ἀνελεῖν τὴν διαθήκην/τάς διαθήκας). Although the terms used (ἀναιρέω and ἡ διαθήκη) in the these passages differ significantly from Col 2:14, there is some connection between the two texts. The Epistle to the Colossians mentions the debt record (ἐξαλείψας χειρόγραφον) that was obliterated by Christ’s death. Isaeus referred to a more mundane matter: the annulment of the will. The difference exists because the debt was incurred by man and annulled by Christ, and the inheritance was left by a man and challenged by another. However, the concept is similar – one person makes a commitment and the other interferes in order to abolish it or change.

    1.4.4 Aeschines

    He lived in the years between c. 390–315 BC. He studied at his father’s elementary school, Atrometus. Before appearing for the first time on the tribune in Athens as a politician, he was a lower-rank civil officer and a tragic actor. He took part in military expeditions, among others to Euboea and the Battle of Mantinea (362). However, he devoted himself to his political career. Together with Demosthenes, he was sent on an embassy to Philip II of Macedon, which led to the so-called Peace of Philocrates (346 BC). It was a turning point in his political activity. From that moment on, he became an ardent supporter of Philip and one of the leaders of the pro-Macedonian party. For this reason, he was accused by Timarchus of high treason. Demosthenes accused him of taking bribes from Philip. These events are preserved in two Aeschines’ orations: I. Against Timarchus , II. On the Embassy .140 When, in 337, Ctesiphon requested a golden wreath for Demosthenes for his services to the State, Aeschines challenged that request as unlawful. Eventually Demosthenes defended Ctesiphon and Aeschines was fined. It is from this period that the last preserved oration of this author comes from: III. Against Ctesiphon . After these events Aeschines went to Ephesus, then to Rhodes and finally to Samos, where he died.141 A popular opinion, voiced by Demosthenes in his speeches, makes Aeschines a traitor and defector. But he was rather a realist, ready to accept the Macedonian supremacy (Philip II) over Greece.142

    In his orations, from the group with the root ὑψο, Aeschines uses only the adjective ὑψηλός (one time). Quite often, however, he uses terms from the group with the prefix ἀνα or the root ἀνω and cognates: ἀναβαίνω (8 times), ἀναιρέω (11 times), ἀναλαμβάνω (9 times), ἀνίστημι (13 times), ἡ ἀνάστασις (1 time), ἄνω (2 times), ἄνωθεν (1 time) and ἐπαίρω (6 times).

    1.4.4.1 ὑψηλός

    The adjective was used only once by this author to refer to the peace treaty that was negotiated with the Lacedaemonians: ἣ τὸν δῆμον ὑψηλὸν ἦρεν (II. On the Embassy 174). In this text, ὑψηλός has a metaphorical meaning: ‘to rise’ above what is average and normal. This referred, however, to ‘democracy’ (ὁ δῆμος), and therefore is not connected with our research.

    1.4.4.2 ἀναβαίνω

    This verb, used 8 times by Aeschines, always has a literal meaning, although with different shades, because the places people ascend (ἀναβαίνω)143 are different.

    1.4.4.3 ἀναιρέω

    In the usage of this verb, two meanings prevail: ‘to remove, to invalidate’ (I. Against Timarchus 90; III. Against Ctesiphon 12.39.40.191 ), ‘to destroy’ (II. On the Embassy 9; III. Against Ctesiphon 16.87.202.236 ). By means of this verb, Aeschines renders the sense already known to Greek authors, namely the answer given by the oracle to the question addressed to the deity: καὶ αὐτοῖς ἀναιρεῖ ἡ Πυθία (III. Against Ctesiphon 108).

    1.4.4.4 ἀναλαμβάνω

    A verb that in Aeschines’ speeches has above all a literal meaning: ‘to take, to take away’ (I. Against Timarchus 43), ‘to take up’ (II. On the Embassy 96), ‘to recover’ (I. Against Timarchus 84; II. On the Embassy 35). The special meaning we encounter for the first time in Greek literature is ‘to adopt, to take up’ (I. Against Timarchus 53.54.57.58 ). In spite of the rather large variety of meanings, this verb has no particular significance for the issue of religious or moral exaltation under investigation.

    1.4.4.5 ἀνίστημι

    The basic literal meaning of this verb in its transitive form is ‘to stand up, to rise’ (I. Against Timarchus 35.61 [× 2].110; II. On the Embassy 49.74.84.127 ; III. Against Ctesiphon 94). In the same form, it also means ‘to be destroyed’ in Aeschines’ orations (II. On the Embassy 115 [× 2]). In a transitional form, it means ‘to rebuild, construct’ (II. On the Embassy 104). It is clearly then visible, that this verb does not have any meaning in Aeschines’ speeches, which would have any significance for the topic we are discussing.

    1.4.4.6 ἡ ἀνάστασις

    A noun used only once by this author. In the third speech it has a literal meaning: ‘uprising’ (III. Against Ctesiphon 126). So it does not contribute to our research.

    1.4.4.7 ἄνω

    Aeschines barely resorted to adverbs to describe the category of height; ἄνω was only used by him twice. In both cases, it functions as an adverbial of time and indicates that an action preceded other events (see II. On the Embassy 10.34 ).

    1.4.4.8 ἄνωθην

    An adverb less frequently used by this author; once it meant ‘to retreat’ (cf. I. Against Timarchus 170).

    1.4.4.9 ἐπαίρω

    This verb can be found in Aeschines’ works six times. The literal meaning ‘to stimulate, to excite’ (I. Against Timarchus 137.192 ; III. Against Ctesiphon 114) and ‘to bring, to raise’ (III. Against Ctesiphon 113.119 ) prevail. One text from the third speech draws attention, in which Aeschines mentions the crimes committed by some representatives of the Thirty, and then poses rhetorical questions, one of which is: οὐ ταπεινώσαντες ἀποπέμψετε τοὺς νῦν ἐπηρμένους (III. Against Ctesiphon 235). The question arises what the meaning of ἐπηρμένους144 is in this text? The context and grammatical form (medii-passivi) indicate the meaning of III.2 in the dictionary edited by Zofia Abramowiczówna, which can be rendered as: ‘to boast about something, to be haughty, to be conceited’.145 This verb would then denote not so much the religious aspect of exaltation as its negative moral dimension – adulation and conceit.

    Summary

    Aeschines, as we have noticed, scarcely used the terminology referring to exaltation or height category at all. If he did, then the literal sense prevailed. But we have two exceptions. In one, the verb ἀναιρέω describes the answer given by the oracle (ἀναιρεῖ ἡ Πυθία) to a question addressed to a deity (III. Against Ctesiphon 108). In the second one, the verb ἐπαίρω indicates the conceit of people (τοὺς νῦν ἐπηρμένους) in a concrete historical situation, to which the speaker refers (III. Against Ctesiphon 235).

    1.4.5 Demosthenes

    He lived between 384–322 BC. His father died when Demosthenes was 7. The care over him was entrusted to his nephews: Aphobus and Demophon who seized his inheritance. At the age of eighteen, Demosthenes only regained thirty silver minas, a house and fourteen slaves. The total value of recovered assets was about seventy minas. From the oration against his guardian we learn that Demosthenes’ father at the time of his death had a fortune worth fourteen talents (Against Aphobus I (27).4) – an enormous property.146 The conflicts over the inheritance gave rise to Demosthenes’ activity as an orator. When he was eighteen, he brought the first action, but it could not be concluded due to his awaiting military service, during which conscripts were not allowed to take legal actions.147 He managed to complete the court proceedings at the age of 20. He delivered his speech and won, yet he did not succeed in recovering his property. Later he took up learning rhetoric. His teacher was an orator renowned for his speeches, Isaeus, who taught him especially the judicial orations. For several years (363–354 BC) Demosthenes earned his living as a logographer, writing speeches for others to deliver. He probably did not learn directly from Isocrates, but like others, he as deeply impressed with his mastery. He learned a lot about history and politics from Thucydides’ works.148 As for the art of rhetoric, he owed much to the advice of the actors, especially Satyrus.149 He started his political activity around 354, when he gave his first truly political speech On the Navy Boards (14).150 He soon became the leader of the anti-Macedonian party and in his speeches he warned against Philip II’s invasive policy. His biggest political antagonist and a great orator was Aeschines. He got into a polemic with him about submissiveness (Aeschines) or opposition (Demosthenes) to Philip II of Macedon.151

    From Demosthenes’ rich legacy, sixty-one speeches have survived to these times,152 forty two of which are classified as judicial orations, sixteen as advisory and political orations and two as epideictic speeches. They include: I. Olynthiac 1 ; II. Olynthiac 2 ; III. Olynthiac 3 ; IV. Philippic I ; V. On the Peace ; VI. Philippic II ; VII. On the Halonnesus ; VIII. On the Chersonese ; IX. Philippic IIIa ;153 X. Philippic IIIb ; XI. Reply to Philip ; XII. Philip’s Letter ; XIII On Organisation; XIV. On the Navy Boards ; XV. On the Liberty of the Rhodians ; XVI. For the Megalopolitans ; XVII. On the Treaty with Alexander ; XVIII. On the Crown ; XIX. On the Embassy ; XX. Against Leptines ; XXI. Against Meidias ; XXII. Against Androtion ; XXIII. Against Aristocrates ; XXIV. Against Timocrates ; XXV. Against Aristogeiton 1 ; XXVI. Against Aristogeiton 2 ; XXVII. Against Aphobus 1 ; XXVIII. Against Aphobus 2 ; XXIX. Against Aphobus 3 ; XXX. Against Ontenor 1; XXXI. Against Ontenor 2; XXXII. Against Zenothemis ; XXXIII. Against Apatourius ; XXXIV. Against Phormio ; XXXV. Against Lacritus; XXXVI. For Phormio; XXXVII. Against Pantaenetus ; XXXVIII. Against Nausimachus and Xenopeithes; XXXIX. Against Boeotus 1; XL. Against Boeotus 2; XLI. Against Spudias; XLII. Against Phaenippus ; XLIII. Against Macartatus ; XLIV. Against Leochares ; XLV. Against Stephanos 1; XLVI. Against Stephanos 2; XLVII. Against Evergus and Mnesibulus; XLVIII. Against the Olympiodorus ; XLIX. Against Timotheus ; L. Against Polycles ; LI. On the Trierarcic Crown; LII. Against Callipus ; LIII. Against Nicostratus ; LIV. Against Conon ; LV. Against Callicles ; LVI. Against Dionysodorus ; LVII. Against Eubulides ; LVIII. Against Theocrines ; LIX. Against Neaera ; LX. Funeral Oration ; LXI. Erotic Essay .

    In addition, six letters and fifty-six introductions have been preserved.154

    In almost all the speeches, introductions and letters we find vocabulary of significance for us. From the group with the root ὑψο, Demosthenes only used the adjective ὑψηλός (2 times). Quite often, however, he used terms from the group with the prefix ἀνα or the root ἀνω and cognates: ἀναβαίνω (25 times), ἀναιρέω (115 times), ἀναλαμβάνω (10 times), ἀνίστημι (45 times), ἡ ἀνάστασις (4 times), ἐγείρω (2 times), ἄνω (20 times), ἄνωθεν (10 times) and ἐπαίρω (19 times).

    1.4.5.1 ὑψηλός

    An adjective used only twice by Demosthenes, in both cases literally.155

    1.4.5.2 ἀναβαίνω

    In the works of this author we meet this verb in one sense: ‘to climb, to ascend’. However, the place people ascend is presented differently. They go up (ἀναβαίνω) to the rostrum in the court or in the assembly.156 They can also board the ship157 or climb to a city.158 As one can see, the meaning is rather exclusively literal. The only thing that deserves some attention is its use in the 25th Speech about ascending the Acropolis, a space dedicated to prayers to the gods, which is indicated by the subsequent context: εἰς ἀκρόπολιν ἀναβαίνοντες (Against Aristogeiton I (25).99). The action expressed by ἀναβαίνω obviously has a literal meaning, only the place of prayer located ‘upwards’, where one has to ascend, indicates the space reserved for the gods.

    1.4.5.3 ἀναιρέω

    This verb was used by Demosthenes frequently (115 times) and in various ways (twelve different meanings). Usually, in a literal sense: ‘to take’,159 ‘take up’,160 ‘to remove’,161 ‘to lose’,162 ‘to reject’,163 ‘to nullify’,164 ‘to destroy’,165 ‘to kill’,166 ‘to banish’,167 ‘to record, save’168 and ‘incite’ a war.169

    Among these numerous literal meanings we can find two texts in which ἀναιρέω stands for the answer given by the oracle of Apollo in Delphi (Against Meidias (21).51) or Zeus in Dodona (Letter 1.16).

    1.4.5.4 ἀναλαμβάνω

    A verb used much less frequently by this author (only 10 times). Its meaning is ‘to lead’.170 However, the dominant meaning is ‘to recover’ something lost (Philippic I (4).7; Against Phaenippus (42).32), position (On the Crown (18).163), power (Reply to Philip (11).21), health (Against Neaera (59).58) or someone (Against Neaera (59).57; 59). It refers to a reality that people constantly struggle to recover. However, this does not seem to have any particular significance for the subject of our research.

    1.4.5.5 ἀνίστημι

    Used by Demosthenes 45 times, always in the literal sense. Usually in the intransitive form: ‘to arise’ to take the floor,171 rarely for any other purpose.172 Sometimes it means ‘to be destroyed, devastated’.173 The only meaning that draws attention in this form is to ‘to recover’ health (Against Neaera (59).58). However, this does not seem to have a significant impact on our research.

    Sometimes Demosthenes uses ἀνίστημι in the transitive form: ‘to erect, to put up’174 or ‘to raise’ from misery175 or ‘lift’.176 We can conclude that neither in the transitive nor in the intransitive form does this verb have a metaphorical meaning in the works of Demosthenes.

    1.4.5.6 ἡ ἀνάστασις

    A noun used by this author not too often (4 times), with two literal meanings: it stands for ‘destruction, extermination’ (Olynthiac I (1).5; Olynthiac II (2).1; On the Crown (18).90), or ‘reconstruction’ (Against Leptines (20).72). There is no metaphorical sense in Demosthenes’ works.

    1.4.5.7 ἐγείρω

    This verb can only be found twice: in the intransitive form ‘to stand up’ (On the Embassy (19). 305) or in perfectum as ‘to watch, be vigilant’ (Philippic II (6).19). Both texts have a literal meaning.

    1.4.5.8 ἄνω

    This adverb is used in a wide range of meanings in the works of Demosthenes. In general, it functions as an adverbial of a place (‘above’177 or even ‘in the north’178 or simply ‘on’179) or as an adverbial of time (‘before’180). As in the works of other authors, in Demosthenes’ orations it is also part of a characteristic idiomatic phrase: ἄνω κάτω,181 standing for chaos, confusion or movement in all directions.182

    Among these texts, one also contains the juxtaposition of two realities, rendered respectively by κάτω (the world of the underground gods) and ἄνω (the human world). Demosthenes in the Funeral Oration depicted the space of dwelling of the gods (τοῖς κάτω θεοῖς) and humans (τῶν ἄνω τιμῶν). Speaking about the deceased heroes, he emphasized that, by analogy, citizens may consider them enjoying the same honours in the afterlife as people worthy of respect in the world (Funeral Oration (60).34).

    1.4.5.9 ἄνωθην

    Our author uses this adverb a little less frequently, only 10 times. However, each time it has a literal meaning, as an adverbial of time (‘formerly’)183or place (‘upper’ country184) or referring to the previous time in a logical sense (returning ‘to the beginning’185). The metaphorical meaning is not found.

    1.4.5.10 ἐπαίρω

    This verb was used (19 times) in the works of Demosthenes with the literal meaning ‘to lift’.186 However, the metaphorical meaning is much more frequent: ‘to inspire, stimulate’,187 ‘to elevate in spirit’188 and ‘to incite, stir up’.189 In none of these texts, however, ἐπαίρω was assigned the religious or even moral denotation.

    Summary

    Among sixty-one preserved speeches, six letters and fifty-six introductions to speeches attributed to Demosthenes, we find the terms referring to the category of height in a religious sense in but a few. The space of dwelling of underground gods was described by the adverb κάτω, as opposed to the sphere of human existence, rendered by ἄνω (Funeral Oration (60).34). The realm of the gods can be approached only in certain places. Demosthenes believed that oracles were such places: the Apollo’s oracle at Delphi (Against Meidias (21).51) or Zeus’ oracle in Dodona (Letter 1.16), in which deities would give answers (ἀναιρέω) to questions addressed to them. The Acropolis, a place of worship of the gods, was also such a place. Man must put some effort to ascend it, to climb upwards (ἀναβαίνω) to get closer to the world of the gods (Against Aristogeiton I (25).99).

    ***

    In the works of the five rhetors the dynamics of the spoken word confirmed and specified the meaning of the terms used to describe a category of height or exaltation. Yet, the terminology is not as rich as we might have expected, given the number of the speeches examined. The terms refer to two fundamental spheres: divine and human. The space that was ‘in between’ also has its importance.

    The world of the gods, the space in which they reside was presented quite enigmatically with the adverb ἄνω (‘aloft, on high’; Lysias, II. Funeral Oration 7). As an antithesis to this term (which, however, means the living space of humans), Demosthenes used κάτω which means the world of underground gods. So much for the gods in relation to the category of height.

    Man, on the other hand, has always looked for opportunities to come into contact with the deity, often by making inquiries through the oracle. The answer given by them was described by Greek authors, including rhetors, with the verb ἀναιρέω. This verb was used by Aeschines to refer to the oracle in the general sense (III. Against Ctesiphon 108). The oracle of Apollo is mentioned several times by Isocrates (IV. Panegyricus 31; VI. Archidamus 24), even if no answer was offered (VI. Archidamus 17; 31). Demosthenes mentions the oracle of Apollo in Delphi (Against Meidias (21).51) and Zeus in Dodona (Letter 1.16).

    The very entrance (ἀναβαίνω) into the cult or prayer space (Acropolis) put man in some kind of relation to the deity. Demosthenes pointed out that it was in the Acropolis that the prayers were uttered (Demosthenes, Against Aristogeiton I (25).99). Lysias, reporting on the story of Agoratus, wrote about a ritual that was supposed to provide its participant with a kind of asylum against the accusers. The ritual consisted in taking a place on the altar of the deity – in the case of Agoratus it was the altar of Artemis in Munichia. Leaving this place, rising (ἀνίστημι) from the altar cancelled this inviolability.

    People in their earthly existence were still exposed to negative effects of exaltation. Conceit (ἐπαίρω) was a constant temptation. The rhetors mention this both in exhortations to avoid it (Lysias, II. Funeral Oration 10) and in the mere statements on pride (Aeschines, III. Against Ctesiphon 235). Life, at least in some situations, brought with it rewards for persistent effort. This is illustrated by Isocrates writing about receiving the prize (ἀναιρέω) after winning the Olympic Games (Isocrates, VI. Archidamus 95). Other life situations demanded the invalidation (ἀναιρέω) of the last will (Isaeus, I. On the Estate of Cleonymus 14.18.21 ; VI. On the Estate of Philoctemon 30.31) or another document (Isaeus, I. On the Estate of Cleonymus 25.42; Isaeus, VI. On the Estate of Philoctemon 32; Isaeus, X. On the Estate of Aristarchus [hypothesis]). Also the recovery (ἀναλαμβάνω) of various assets, especially the lost glory, was a vital necessity (Isocrates, VIII. On the Peace 141; IX. Evagoras 56).

    The history of philosophical thought dates back to the turn of the 7th and 6th centuries BC; Polish philosopher, Władysław Tatarkiewicz identified five philosophical approaches for that period: 1) the Ionic natural philosophers with Thales of Miletus at the head; 2) variabilism initiated by Heraclitus of Ephesus; 3) the philosophy of the Eleatic school founded by Parmenides; 4) Empedocles and Anaxagoras as well as Democritus and Atomists; 5) Pythagoreans with Pythagoras as their founder.190

    The next period of Greek philosophy (the 5th and 6th century BC) produced such a great thinker as Socrates (469–399 BC); sadly, he left no writings, so we have no possibility of analysing how the concept of exaltation developed in his views. The great synthesis of the humanistic stance in the 5th century Greek philosophy was made by Plato. This was not the first synthesis; it was preceded by that of Democritus. Nonetheless, the latter’s preserved works are incomplete, which makes it impossible to discuss the issue in question in a reliable way. Plato, on the other hand, left numerous writings, making it possible to examine his work from the point of view of the terms describing height and exaltation. It is noteworthy to remember that St Augustine drew on his dogmatic system.

    The last great system of the second period of ancient philosophy was created by Aristotle. He left a prolific literary legacy that makes a good material for this research. As a philosopher he became the forerunner of St Thomas Aquinas and the latter’s thoroughly Christian philosophical system.

    Unfortunately, the literary output of the representatives of the last period (3rd and 1st century BC) of ancient philosophy (Stoics, Epicureans, Sceptics and Eclectics) is fragmented, which prevents us from performing the analysis of characteristic features of the investigated terminology. Therefore, in this research we need to shortlist the thinkers to those who have left great philosophical systems and a rich literary legacy: Plato and Aristotle.

    1.5.1 Plato

    He was born in 428 or 427 BC in an aristocratic family in Athens or in an Athenian colony in Aegina. His father was Ariston, who came from the mythical king of Athens, Codros, and his mother was Perictione of Solon’s family. In 407 Plato became a student of Socrates, with whom he never parted for the next eight years. It was about Socrates that he later wrote about with great reverence in his dialogues. After the death of his master in 399, he made numerous trips to Megara, Egypt, Cyrene, Italy and Syracuse in Sicily. After returning to Athens in 387, he founded his first school of philosophy, engaging in teaching and writing until his death. However, before his death, he visited Syracuse twice. Eventually, however, he returned to Athens, where he died in 347 BC.191

    Among the many preserved works of Plato, there are many whose authorship was already questioned in ancient times. It is not the subject of this research to clarify which of the works were authored by Plato and which were only attributed to him – we encourage the reader to familiarize with a clear presentation of this issue and the opinions of scholars on this subject in the study of Marcin Podbielski.192 We will only focus on those works193 in which Plato uses the terms that fall within the scope of investigations. And these include: First Alcibiades ,194Second Alcibiades , Charmides , Epinomis , Euthydemus , Phaedrus , Phaedo , Philebus , Gorgias , Hipparchus , Greater Hippias , Lesser Hippias , Ion , Cratylus , Critias , Crito , Laches , Lysis , Menexenus , Meno , Minos , The Republic ,195Parmenides , Politicus , Laws ,196Protagoras , Sophist , Theages , Theaetetus , Timaeus , Symposium ,197The Apology of Socrates and Epistles .198

    In these works, Plato used the following terms from ὑψο group: τὸ ὕψος (9 times), ὑψηλός (27 times) and ὑψόθεν (1 time). From ἀνο group, however, ἀναβαίνω (19 times), ἀναιρέω (32 times), ἀναλαμβάνω (40 times), ἀνίστημι (35 times), ἄνω (114 times) and ἄνωθεν (26 times). He made also use of: ἐγείρω (59 times), ἡ ἔγερσις (1 time) and ἐπαίρω (7 times).

    1.5.1.1 τὸ ὕψος

    Plato used this noun in different ways, from giving the dimensions of physical objects199 to the description of a war dance,200 to emphasizing the importance of “heritage” and the state of ignorance and stupidity of Dion’s robbers. We will analyse these last two examples.

    Writing about heritage, Plato, noted the following: εἶτα τὸ τῆς οὐσίας ὕψος τε καὶ μέγεθος, ὃ τὸ πρῶτον ἐνείμασθε μέτριον (Laws 5.741b). It is a special property of what Plato called ἡ οὐσία, that is, its dignity (ὕψος) and greatness (μέγεθος), undoubtedly presented in a positive sense. But if we read Plato’s Seventh Letter, we can see that τὸ ὕψος also has a pejorative meaning. Writing about the death of Dion, the ruler of Syracuse, he described his knowledge on the robbers: ὅσον δὲ ὕψος ἀμαθίας εἶχον (Epistles 7.351d–351e). The point was not to physically define a dimension, but to describe the level of ignorance, blindness, that is, what is called ἡ ἀμαθία. We can observe a certain logic in these two texts: if τὸ ὕψος refers to positive values, then it expresses ‘dignity’, and if it refers to pejorative values, then it has the meaning of ‘pride, level of blindness’. In any case, however, it takes over at least part of the meaning of the noun to which it refers.

    1.5.1.2 ὑψηλός

    In the works of this author we meet this noun used in three functions as a noun, modifier and adjective.

    In the function of the noun it is always in the plural: τὰ ὑψηλά and it stands for ‘hills, uplands’.201 The excerpt in which the Athenian Stranger promotes the right attitude both in joy and in sadness is particularly interesting; we can find there the following comparison: καὶ κατὰ τύχας οἷον πρὸς ὑψηλὰ καὶ ἀνάντη δαιμόνων ἀνθισταμένων τισὶν πράξεσιν (Laws 5.732c).202 Thus, the adjective ὑψηλός has no figurative meaning, but functions as part of a comparative phrase.

    Most often this adjective is used by Plato as a modifier.203 It can formally serve as a modifier and have a figurative meaning. In the Seventh Letter, Plato gives the reason why he failed to present his views in a systematic and exhaustive manner in his writings. He wrote: τῶν τε δὴ ἄλλων τοὺς μὲν καταφρονήφεως οὐκ ὀρθῆς ἐμπλήσειεν ἂν οὐδαμῇ ἐμμελῶς, τοὺς δὲ ὑψηλῆς καὶ χαύνης ἐλπίδος (Epistles 7.341e).204 An explanation of ἐμπλῆσαί τινα ὑψηλῆς καὶ χαύνης ἐλπίδος is given by Zofia Abramowiczówna: ‘become haughty, conceited and arouse vain hope’.205 So this term would refer to the negative aspect of ‘exaltation’ – becoming too proud and haughty.

    In the function of the adjective ὑψηλός was used by Plato five times in combination with various verbs, including twice with its ellipse.206 In two texts it is part of an idiomatic phrase. In the former Socrates ponders on the influence of philosophy on an uneducated person, who will feel ἀπὸ ὑψηλοῦ κρεμασθεὶς (Theaetetus 175d). This phrase means literally ‘hanging high’.207 The prepositional construction ἀπὸ ὑψηλοῦ combines with the verb χρεμάννυμι. In the latter, Socrates, considering the attitude of a young man from a noble family, who was favoured by relatives and citizens and believed “that he can manage with the affairs of the Hellenes and the barbarians”, asked: ἐπὶ τούτοις ὑψηλὸν ἐξαρεῖν αὑτόν (The Republic 6.494d).208 This attitude is obviously regarded as pejorative; the man literally ‘raises himself high above others’, which is syntactically expressed by means of a combination of this adjective with the verb ἐξαίρω. The reason for this is pride. So the adjective ὑψηλός would mean ‘pride, conceit’ in this case.

    1.5.1.3 ὑψόθεν

    An adverb used only once by Plato, but it actually reflects the character of the philosopher. In the opening dialogue in Sophist between Socrates and Theodore, the former noted that philosophers are those who καθορῶντες ὑψόθεν τὸν τῶν κάτω βίον (Sophist 216c). It refers to people who look down on things. The privilege of the gods on Olympus seems to become an attribute of philosophers as well. Gods are not the only ones who look and act from on high (ὑψόωεν), people are allowed to do the same, people who love wisdom, that is philosophers.

    1.5.1.4 ἀναβαίνω

    Plato usually made use of this verb in a literal sense.209 In several texts we encounter tehe figurative meaning,210 three of which seem to be interesting for our research.

    Socrates, discussing ignorance, the lack of knowledge, asked the question: οἶσθα ὅντινα τρόπον ἀναβήσῃ εἰς τὸν οὐρανόν (First Alcibiades , 117b). In the argumentation the impossibility of denying reality is emphasised, even that reality the people cannot know. It seems, therefore, that Plato, using this verb, indicates a certain, even theoretical, possibility of ascending to heaven. This, at least, is apparent from the further part of the dialogue (117b–117c), in which he provided other examples of a lack of knowledge of some issues, which does not prove that these things are impossible to perform.

    Socrates, describing the fate of Er, the son of Armenius, whose soul made a journey to the other side, recalled two chasms that were in heaven and earth. The righteous were led by the judges to the right, to the opening above, and the unrighteous to the left, to the opening below (The Republic 10.614c–614d). In this context, the protagonists of Socrates’ story claim: ἦσαν δὲ καὶ ἰδιῶταί τινες τῶν μεγάλα ἡμαρτηκότων – οὓς οἰομένους ἤδη ἀναβήσεσθαι οὐκ ἐδέχετο τὸ στόμιον, ἀλλ᾽ ἐμυκᾶτο ὁπότε τις τῶν οὕτως ἀνιάτως ἐχόντων εἰς πονηρίαν ἢ μὴ ἱκανῶς δεδωκὼς δίκην ἐπιχειροῖ ἀνιέναι (The Republic 10.615d–615e).211 Then it was stated: ἔνθα δὴ φόβων, ἔφη, πολλῶν καὶ παντοδαπῶν σφίσι γεγονότων, τοῦτον ὑπερβάλλειν, μὴ γένοιτο ἑκάστῳ τὸ φθέγμα ὅτε ἀναβαίνοι, καὶ ἁσμενέστατα ἕκαστον σιγήσαντος ἀναβῆναι (The Republic 10.616a).212

    The problem here is the meaning of the words: ἀναβήσεσθαι, ἀναβαίνοι and ἀναβῆναι. Taking into account the context of the statement, we can conclude that it can be interpreted as ‘ascending, climbing up’ to a chasm in the sky. This is further explained by the words in the final part of the first text: ἢ μὴ ἱκανῶς δεδωκὼς δίκην ἐπιχειροῖ ἀνιέναι (The Republic 10.615e). It seems that the point is to get these criminals out, after having atone for their deeds, into the ‘world’ located up there, behind the chasm in heaven. We can consider it as some distant prototype of Purgatory, from which one can get to ‘heaven’ after the atonement of transgressions.

    1.5.1.5 ἀναιρέω

    Plato used it both literally213 and figuratively.214 Of the latter group, those texts that refer to the ‘choosing’ of someone or something by the gods or the ‘answer given’ by the oracle are of particular interest to this topic.215

    Socrates writing about his wisdom stated that ἀνεῖλεν οὖν ἡ Πυθία μηδένα σοφώτερον εἶναι (The Apology of Socrates 21a).216 The verb ἀναιρέω (ἀνεῖλεν) here means the answer given by the oracle to a question by Chaerephon.

    A similar context can be noticed to the statement by Cleinias, who speaks of Epimenides arriving in Athens and, according to the oracle, offering sacrifices ἃς ὁ θεὸς ἀνεῖλεν (Laws 1.642e).217 This verb (ἀνεῖλεν) means the choice that god makes when accepting sacrifices. Similar meaning is also assigned to the statement of the Athenian Stranger, who speaks about appointing an heir in a family that has more than one child under ten years old. Their names are to be sent to Delphi ὃν δ᾽ ἂν ὁ θεὸς ἀνέλῃ218 to become the heir (Laws 9.856e). The same is true for the offerings made by someone who killed his slave: τούτων δ᾽ ἐξηγητὰς εἶναι κυρίους οὓς ἂν ὁ θεὸς ἀνέλῃ (Laws 9.865d).219 And for specifying the rights of a person who stole some goods. Their fate will depend on the decision of the oracle ὅτι δ᾽ ἂν ὁ θεὸς ἀναιρῇ περί τε τῶν χρημάτων (Laws 11.914a).220

    We can see thus that this verb has, among others, the meaning that emphasises the choice of the gods announced by oracles. Generally speaking, it is based on the decision that the gods make in matters concerning people. The choice, acceptance of offerings or a verdict given by the oracle means the acceptance of a person’s achievements or the indication of the right course of action.

    1.5.1.6 ἀναλαμβάνω

    This verb is used by Plato both literally221 and metaphorically.222 In the latter group, Glaucon’s statement is particularly noteworthy with regard to the war to be watched by young people (The Republic 5.467b). In such a situation, however, they are faced with the danger that not only will they die (the fighting ones), but also they will lose children and the rest of the country will not be able to rise (πρὸς ἑαυτοῖς παῖδας ἀπολέσαντας ποιῆσαι καὶ τὴν ἄλλην πόλιν ἀδύνατον ἀναλαβεῖν). Plato seems to indicate to the impossibility of restoring the country to its original state. One can see here a distant prototype of raising something or someone, that is restoring to the previous state.

    1.5.1.7 ἀνίστημι

    A verb quite often used by Plato, but always in a literal sense: ‘to get up, rise’223 and no metaphorical or religious meaning can be assigned to it.

    1.5.1.8 ἄνω

    The adverb is quite often found in Plato’s works, it has both literal224 and figurative225 meaning.

    Two metaphorical meanings of this adverb by Plato seem interesting. In one group of texts it has an abstract meaning ‘upwards’. That is what Socrates said in his conversation with Theaetetus: “But, O my friend, when he draws the other into upper air (ἑλκύσῃ ἄνω), and gets him out of his pleas and rejoinders [175c] into the contemplation of justice and injustice in their own nature […]” (Theaetetus 175b–175c). It seems that this is a transition in reasoning from simple concepts to abstract concepts. We find a similar way of thinking in words: “of all these stages, passing in turn from one to another, up and down (ἄνω καὶ κάτω μεταβαίνουσα), which with difficulty implants knowledge, when the man himself, like his object, is of a fine nature” (Epistles 7.343e). And then again: “They say that there is no need of treating these matters with such gravity and carrying them back so far (ἀνάγειν ἄνω), to first principles with many words; for, as we said in the beginning of this discussion, he who is to be a competent rhetorician need have nothing at all to do, they say, with truth in considering things which are just or good, or men who are so, whether by nature or by education. For in the courts, they say, nobody cares for truth about these matters, but for that which is convincing (Phaedrus 272d, e). In this text, the meaning of ἄνω seems to indicate an in-depth consideration of things – reaching high.

    Another group of Socrates’ statements about a man who elevates his soul to the world of thought is maintained in a slightly different tone: “Men would say of him that up he went (ἀναβάς ἄνω) and down he came without his eyes; and that it was better not even to think of ascending” (ἄνω ἰέναι; The Republic 7.517a). He then confirms that with words: “and you will not misapprehend me if you interpret the journey upwards (ἄνω ἀνάβασιν) [to see what is up there] (θέαν τῶν ἄνω), to be the ascent of the soul into the intellectual world according to my poor belief, which, at your desire, I have expressed” (The Republic 7.517b). And then again: “Moreover, I said, you must not wonder that those who attain to this beatific vision are unwilling to descend to human affairs; for their souls are ever hastening into the upper world where they desire to dwell” (The Republic 7.517c). Subsequent texts confirm the argument: “I mean, as I was saying, that arithmetic has a very great and elevating effect up (σφόδρα ἄνω ποι ἄγει), compelling the soul to reason about abstract number, and rebelling against the introduction of visible or tangible objects into the argument” (The Republic 7.525d); “Then, my noble friend, geometry will draw the soul towards truth, and create the spirit of philosophy, and raise up (πρὸς τὸ ἄνω σχεῖν) that which is now unhappily allowed to fall down” (The Republic 7.527b); “For every one, as I think, must see that astronomy compels the soul to look upwards (εἰς τὸ ἄνω ὁρᾶν) and leads us from this world to another. […] You, I replied, have in your mind a truly sublime conception of our knowledge of the things above (τὰ ἄνω μάθησιν; The Republic 7.529a); “but, in my opinion, that knowledge only which is of being and of the unseen can make the soul look upwards (ἄνω ποιοῦν), and whether a man gapes at the heavens (ἄνω) or blinks on the ground, seeking to learn some particular of sense, I would deny that he can learn, for nothing of that sort is matter of science [529c]; his soul is looking downwards, not upwards (οὔτε ἄνω ἀλλὰ κάτω αὐτοῦ βλέπειν τὴν ψυχήν), whether his way to knowledge is by water or by land, whether he floats, or only lies on his back” (The Republic 7.529c); “Then dialectic, and dialectic alone, goes directly to the first principle and is the only science which does away with hypotheses [533d] in order to make her ground secure; the eye of the soul, which is literally buried in an outlandish slough, is by her gentle aid lifted upwards (ἀνάγει ἄνω); and she uses as handmaids and helpers in the work of conversion, the sciences which we have been discussing” (The Republic 7.533d); “Those then who know not wisdom and virtue, and are always busy with gluttony and sensuality, go down and up again as far as the mean; and in this region they move at random throughout life, but they never pass into the true upper world; thither they neither look (πρὸς τὸ ἀληθῶς ἄνω), nor do they ever find their way, neither are they truly filled with true being” (The Republic 9.586a); “Wherefore my counsel is, that we hold fast ever to the heavenly way (τῆς ἄνω ὁδοῦ ἀεί) and follow after justice and virtue always, considering that the soul is immortal and able to endure every sort of good and every sort of evil. Thus shall we live dear to one another and to the gods” (The Republic 10.621c). Similarly, in one of the dialogues, the situation of the souls of whom Socrates says: “The other souls follow after, all yearning for the upper region (τοῦ ἄνω ἔπονται), but unable to reach it, and are carried round beneath, [248b] trampling upon and colliding with one another, each striving to pass its neighbour” (Phaedrus 248a–248b); “All my discourse so far has been about the fourth kind of madness, which causes him to be regarded as mad, who, when he sees the beauty on earth, remembering the true beauty, feels his wings growing and longs to stretch them for an upward flight, but cannot do so, and, like a bird, gazes upward (βλέπων ἄνω) and neglects the things below” (Phaedrus 249d).

    In all these texts, this adverb here means an unspecified direction ‘upwards’, perhaps the sphere of otherworldly existence. It can also be construed as some existence of the soul on a higher level than just the earthly one.

    In the next group of texts we meet ἄνω in the sense of ‘high, from on high’ as a sphere of dwelling of the gods. Socrates in his description of Uranus stated that contemplation of what is above (ἐς τὸ ἄνω ὄψις) is “rightly called the name urania” (Cratylus 396b), for he looks at the things above. Further on, explaining the meaning of the word πᾶν226 he noted that Pan has a double nature: upper – smooth and divine, which dwells aloft (λεῖον καὶ θεῖον καὶ ἄνω οἰκοῦν) and lower – false and rough (Cratylus 408c). In the Laws , the Athenian Stranger gives the law against any wrong done to parents by referring to the fear of gods ‘above’ (τῶν ἄνω δείσας θεῶν; Laws 9.880e). Likewise, it prescribes the fear of gods ‘above’ (τοὺς ἄνω θεὺς φοβείσθων) who are sensitive to the rights of orphans (Laws 11.927b). In another place Plato presents the wings as a divine element, for they can “carry that which is heavy up (ἄγειν ἄνω) to the place where dwells the race of the gods” (Phaedrus 246d).

    In the text describing the fate of Er, the son of Armenius, whose soul made the journey to the other side (cf. The Republic 10.614b–621b),227 two chasms are mentioned that were up in heaven (ἐν τῷ ἄνω) and in earth. The judges ordered the righteous to go right and upwards (πορεύεσθαι τὴν εἰς δεξιάν τε καὶ ἄνω) and the unjust to go left and downwards (The Republic 10.614c).

    Taking into account the texts analysed so far, we notice that in a metaphorical sense the adverb ἄνω has two meanings of particular interest to us. In the relevant context (the dwelling of the gods or the existence of the soul) it stands for a sphere of existence above the earth, which we can call divine, accessible for the human soul only after death. In the context of rational reflection, it may mean that the soul is uplifted above the mundane things, but this is already available to people during their life on earth if only they love wisdom and become philosophers.

    1.5.1.9 ἄνωθεν

    This adverb is used less often by this author than the one discussed above. Its Meaning is not that rich either. In Plato’s texts it has a literal, even physical sense: ‘from on high, from above’.228

    1.5.1.10 ἐγείρω

    A verb quite often found in Plato’s works (59 times in all his literary legacy). Except for one exception (Theaetetus 184a229), it always has a literal meaning. The dominant meaning is ‘to wake up,230 to get up from sleep,231 to watch’,232 but it also means ‘to cause something’.233 The first of these thematic groups seems to be relevant to our investigations.

    1.5.1.11 ἡ ἔγερσις

    The noun was used by Plato only once, literally as ‘awakening, waking up’234 and it is without any significance for our research.

    1.5.1.12 ἐπαίρω

    In the works of this philosopher, we encounter this particular verb six times, always in a figurative sense.235 Only one text seems important for these investigations. In the statement on the performance of a specific function, we read about the danger of a man’s pride (ἐπαιρόμενος) because of his profession, who wants to reach a position in the state for which he is not intended (The Republic 4.434b). We can clearly see a negative aspect of ‘exaltation’, that is conceit.

    Summary

    From the above search for the meaning of the idea of ‘exaltation’ we notice that in Plato’s works, in a figurative sense, it has a positive dimension (the cognitive sphere of existence of the soul, the otherworldly dwelling of the gods and people – all rendered by the adverb ἄνω) and a pejorative dimension (the pride of man). The latter was expressed by the terms: τὸ ὕψος, ὑψηλός and ἐπαίρω. In a literal sense, in the case of certain verbs, it refers to awakening, waking from a dream (ἀνίστημι in the intransitive form), waking up (ἐγείρω in a reflexive form).

    1.5.2 Aristotle

    Aristotle lived between 384–322 BC. He was born in Stagira on the Thracian Peninsula. He came from the Asclepiades family (both from his father’s and mother’s side), where the medical profession was hereditary. The environment in which he grew provided him with a certain amount of natural and medical knowledge. In 367 he came to Athens and joined Plato’s Academy, where he spent twenty years, first as a student and then as a teacher. Undoubtedly, his empirical education had a significant impact on the philosophical system he created. While still at the Academy, he spoke out against the Plato doctrine. He departed from the Academy, however, only after Speusippus, less brilliant, had been chosen Plato’s successor. Then he moved to Assos, Asia, and then, probably, to Mytilene, Lesbos. Later, at the invitation of Philip of Macedonia, he became Alexander’s teacher, holding this position probably until 340, when Alexander’s father made his son the regent of Macedonia. As far as Aristotle’s further stay is concerned, the scholars’ opinions are divided, but it is known that in 335 he returned to Athens and established a school, which he ran until 323. Then, after Alexander’s death, anti-Macedonian movements intensified and the philosopher left with his family for the estate in Chalcis, Euboea, where he died less than a year later.236

    He left an extremely rich literary legacy. His works can be divided into two main groups: literary writings (also called “published” by him) and didactic writings. The latter are divided into four blocks: logical, metaphysical, on the philosophy of nature and natural sciences and on practical philosophy. The literary works include no terms that would be of interest for our analyses. Among the didactic writings we will only mention those with terms that are significant from our perspective:237 the only metaphysical work, Metaphysics ; the writings on the philosophy of nature and natural sciences: Meteorology , History of Animals , Parts of animals , Movement of animals , On the Universe , Problems , On Marvelous Things Heard , Sense and sensibilia ; the writings on practical philosophy: Eudemian Ethics , Nicomachean Ethics , Politics , The Constitution of the Athenians , Rhetoric , Economics , Poetics .238

    In these works we can find terms from ὑψο group: τὸ ὕψος (12 times), ὑψηλός (35 times), and ὑψοῦ (1 time). From ἀνο group and cognates: ἀναβαίνω (6 times), ἀναιρέω (77 times), ἀναλαμβάνω (10 times), ἀνίστημι (4 times), ἐγείρω (6 times), ἡ ἔγερσις (1 time), ἄνω (17 times), ἄνωθεν (5 times) and ἐπαίρω (1 time).

    1.5.2.1 τὸ ὕψος

    In the works of this author it usually means physical ‘height’.239 In two texts, however, we observe a slightly different, metaphorical meaning of this term. In the first one, the author gives an argument about the hidden truth (τὴν ἐν αὐτοῖς ἀλήθειαν), whose sublimity (τὸ ὕψος) and greatness (τὸ μέγαθος) can be feared by other sciences, but not philosophy (On the Universe 391a). In the next fragment, Aristotle, describing the court of Cambyses, Xerxes and Darius, uses this noun to describe the sublimity (ὕψος) of his majesty and dignity (On the Universe 398a). So in both texts, the meaning of τὸ ὕψος is metaphorical, although it does not bring any particular contribution to our research.

    1.5.2.2 ὑψηλός

    The adjective coming from the same root as the noun discussed above, in the writings of Aristotle equally defines the physical ‘height’ of things or places,240 or animals.241 In the comparative, it describes the ‘superiority’ of one object or place over another.242

    1.5.2.3 ὑψοῦ

    Aristotle only used this adverb once. Describing the eagle, he states that “it flies high (ὑψοῦ), to inspect a very large area with its eyes” (History of Animals 9.619b).

    1.5.2.4 ἀναβαίνω

    A verb used by Aristotle in quite diversified senses, mostly literal: ‘to climb’243 or ‘to mount’ the horse.244 Twice, however, this verb has a metaphorical meaning: ‘to climb’ (ἀναβήναι) the Areopagus, which means to become the member of its Council (The Constitution of the Athenians 60.3). Warning the people against the rule of Phalaris, Aristotle stated: “If, to top it all, you give him a guard and if you let him get on your back (ἀναβήναι), you will become slaves to Phalaris from that moment on”.

    The Constitution of the Athenians , however, presents the ritual of swearing-in by the archons: ἀναβάντες δ᾽ ἐπὶ τοῦτον ὀμνύουσιν δικαίως ἄρξειν καὶ κατὰ τοὺς νόμους […] (The Constitution of the Athenians 55.5). The pronoun τοῦτον indicates that this is the place where the archons take the oath (ἀναβάντες). It was a stone to which they were going in a slow procession, and there was a sacrificial animal on it: βαδίζουσι πρὸς τὸν λίθον ἐφ᾽ οὗ τὰ τόμι᾽ ἐστίν (The Constitution of the Athenians 55.5). However, the attention should be paid not so much to the ritual itself as to the place where the archons climb. It is raised above the surrounding area, which suggests that it is a ‘sacred place’. This is also underlined by the fact that the sacrifice lied on it. We can conclude then that it was actually a sacrificial altar,245 a place reserved exclusively for the gods. Man, by entering it, appeals to the gods and calls them to be witnesses to his oath.

    1.5.2.5 ἀναιρέω

    In the majority of Aristotle’s works, it has a literal meaning: ‘to take’,246 ‘to abolish, remove, discard’,247 ‘to kill, to lose’,248 ‘to solve’,249 ‘to command’.250 Only in three texts do we find moral and religious meaning. With regard to man, Aristotle states: δεῖν ἐπὶ σωτηρίᾳ γε τῆς ἀληθείας καὶ τὰ οἰκεῖα ἀναιρεῖν (Nicomachean Ethics 1.1096a.10). The task that a thinker puts before a philosopher is the choice to defend the truth, even at the price of losing (ἀναιρεῖν) what is dear to him. As for the gods, it is to show their answer to man’s call. This is what we read about the Phylai, the tribes, among whom ten Pythia appointed (ἀνεῖλενout of a hundred (The Constitution of the Athenians 21.6). Similarly, when writing about the rules of composing a literary work, Aristotle notes: ἀνείλεν ὁ θεός (Poetics 1455b). Both examples present the action of gods who answer the question of man, whether directly or through an oracle.

    1.5.2.6 ἀναλαμβάνω

    A verb used by this author solely in a literal sense: ‘to get back’,251 ‘to get’,252 ‘to return’ to the subject.253

    1.5.2.7 ἀνίστημι

    As discussed above, this verb in the works of Aristotle has only a literal meaning: ‘to rise, to stand up’.254

    1.5.2.8 ἐγείρω

    It has a slightly different shade of meaning. Literally it means: ‘to wake up’ from sleep255 or ‘be vigilant’.256 In the context of this first meaning, a metaphorical sense also appears in the quotation from Homer’s Iliad : μένος καὶ θυμὸν ἔγειρε (Nicomachean Ethics 3.1116b.25), which can be translated as: ‘he aroused bravery and wrath’. However, this is not relevant in this search.

    1.5.2.9 ἡ ἔγερσις

    In the works of Aristotle, it has similar meanings to the corresponding verb discussed above. It occurs once, in the context of “arousing and giving vent to fierce anger”: τὴν τοῦ θυμοῦ ἔγερσιν καὶ ὁρμήν (Nicomachean Ethics 3.1116b.30).

    1.5.2.10 ἄνω

    An adverb used by this author to refer to material and abstract things. When specifying physical objects or places, it means ‘upwards, being aloft’.257 It also specifies the earlier statement.258 In the description of abstract realities, it stands for ‘higher, prior’ in terms of categories.259 Even if in the latter group we encounter statements of a metaphorical nature, they have neither religious nor moral meaning, describing at best the considered realities of philosophy.

    1.5.2.11 ἄνωθεν

    In the texts of Aristotle, it is actually a synonym of the adverb discussed above. It literally describes something that is ‘aloft, up’260 or ‘before’.261

    1.5.2.12 ἐπαίρω

    It has only literal meaning: ‘to pick up’.262

    Summary

    In Aristotle’s works we can find quite a rich terminology describing categories of height. However, it is dominated by the literal meaning. Only in the use of terms such as ἀναβαίνω or ἀναιρέω do we observe a metaphorical meaning of a religious nature. And so, the space where man can communicate with God is the sacrificial altar, to which he must ascend (ἀναβάντες) and take the oath there (The Constitution of the Athenians 55.5). He also turns to God in matters of life. God answers (ἀνεῖλεν) in person (Poetics 1455b) or by an oracle (The Constitution of the Athenians 21.6). The attitude of a man, and especially of a philosopher, is to be characterized by the defence of the truth, even at the cost of losing (ἀναιρεῖν) the most precious things (Nicomachean Ethics 1.1096a.10).

    ***

    Plato and Aristotle use quite a rich terminology when determining the category of height, but usually it should be understood literally. Plato used only seven concepts to present this reality in a metaphorical sense, Aristotle used only two. They both did so in relation to three realities: to the gods, to man’s desire to come into contact with the gods, and to the moral aspect of human life.

    The space of the dwelling of the gods is described by the adverb ἄνω since their dwelling is ‘on high, above’ (Plato, Cratylus 396b; 408c; Laws 9.880e; 11.927b; Phaedrus 246d; The Republic 10.614c).

    The search for contact with the deities, or rather, for obtaining their opinions on everyday matters, was one of the most frequent activities undertaken by man. Questions that were addressed to a deity were usually answered (ἀναιρέω) by an oracle (Plato, The Apology of Socrates 21a; Aristotle, The Constitution of the Athenians 21.6); especially a choice was to be made by a god (Plato, Laws 1.642e; 9.865d; 11.914a). Sometimes a god replied personally (ἀναιρέω; Aristotle, Poetics 1455b).

    Man can come into contact with the world of the gods personally by ascending (ἀναβαίνω) to heaven (Plato, First Alcibiades, 117b; The Republic 10.615e; 10.616a).While still on earth, he seeks such contact with gods and reaches it by ascending (ἀναβαίνω) the sacrificial altar (Aristotle, The Constitution of the Athenians 55.5).

    Through the study of philosophy, man can find the otherworldly (ἄνω) existence of the soul (Plato, The Republic 7.517a; 7.517b; 7.517c; 7.525d; 7.527b; 7.529a; 7.529b–529c; 7.533d; 9.586a; 10.621c; Phaedrus 248a; 249d). Practicing the queen of sciences gives him an insight into the truth from above (ὑψόθεν; Plato, Sophist 216c). Thus, the privilege of the Olympus gods becomes an attribute of philosophers too.

    In the sphere of the moral life of the human being, Aristotle sets a clear task for the philosopher: to defend the truth, even at the price of losing (ἀναιρέω) what is most precious (Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics 1.1096a.10). It seems that the opposite attitude is excessive pride, or to be more precise, ‘conceit’, excessive self-assurance and self-confidence. Plato describes this reality quite extensively using terms such as τὸ ὕψος (Epistles 7.351d–351e), ὑψηλός (Epistles 7.341e; The Republic 6.494d) and ἐπαίρω (The Republic 4.434b).

    Apart from authors who looked for answers to the question about the nature of the world and its key elements, there were also those who would record events. They created their works based on the oldest documents, such as temple and monument inscriptions and chronicles of the winners of the Olympic Games. In the 6th and 5th centuries BC there were many such logographers, but only scanty fragments of their works have survived.263 Among these authors, the following should be listed: Cadmus of Miletus (ca. 560–490 BC), Hecataeus of Miletus (ca. 560–490 BC) and Hellanicus of Mytilene (485–400 BC), contemporary of Herodotus.264

    Historiography as an artistic prose began to flourish in the 5th century BC. Two figures came to the fore: Herodotus of Halicarnassus and Thucydides of Athens. The work of the latter was continued at the end of the 5th century and at the beginning of the 4th century BC by Xenophon. Later, historiography was influenced by rhetoric flourishing in the 4th century BC. The writers of rhetorical historiography include Ephorus of Cyme (ca. 405–330 BC), Theopumpus of Chios (ca. 376–315 BC) and Timaeus of Tauromenium (ca. 346–250 BC).265

    In the Hellenistic period, historiography was largely focused on the conquests of Alexander the Great and his successors, the Diadochi. One can list here a number of his biographers and historians of the period of the Diadochi reign.266 The development of historiography then was greatly dependent on rhetoric, and probably Polybius, the author of the monumental Histories , was the only representative of scholarly historiography operating on the model worked out by Thucydides.

    In this research we have concentrated on the writings of four authors. Three of them represent the period when historiography flourished: Herodotus, Thucydides and Xenophon. The fourth is Polybius, the author of the most important work of Hellenistic historiography of the second century BC.

    1.6.1 Herodotus

    He came from Halicarnassus, a town in Caria founded by Dorian Greeks. He lived between 485 and 425 BC. He spent the first years of his life in his hometown, which he left for Athens after 450 BC. When the Athenians founded the city of Thurii in southern Italy between 444–443, Herodotus went there and stayed probably until his death.267 His only known work is Histories ,268 written in the Ionic dialect, even though Herodotus spent almost twenty-five years in Athens.269 The division of his legacy into nine books (and naming them after the Muses) was made later. The work, however, was composed by the author himself in a very elaborate and complicated form – the main story, excursions and minor digressions within these excursions. Herodotus followed the Ionian logographers, providing abundant historical, geographical and ethnographic material. Although his historical method was not yet developed, he can be called, after Cicero, the father of history.270

    In his work, Herodotus used three terms from the first group (with the root ὑψο): τὸ ὕψος (16 times), ὑψηλός (24 times) and ὑψοῦ (3 times). The use of the adjective ὑψηλός is particularly rich as regards its syntactic function. The second group (ἀνα-prefixed or with the root ἀνω and cognates) we meet: ἀναβαίνω (54 times), ἀναιρέω (40 times), ἀναλαμβάνω (28 times), ἀνίστημι (18 times), ἐγείρω (11 times), ἄνω (46 times), ἄνωθην (7 times) and ἡ ἀνάστασις (1 time).

    1.6.1.1 τὸ ὕψος

    A noun whose most common meaning is ‘height’271 is used in Herodotus’ work to describe this very dimension (always in a physical sense). By means of this noun sometimes only one dimension is specified (2.138.2; 2.175.1; 7.60.2). More often, however, Herodotus provided two dimensions of the described object apart from height (1.178.3; 1.185.4; 2.124.4 272). In six cases Herodotus provided three dimensions (including height) of the described objects (1.50.2; 2.124.3; 2.175.3; 3.60.2; 4.62.2).

    Another construction in which we meet this noun is the combination of preposition + τὸ ὕψος + verb. Similarly, phrases based on the preposition ἐς273 are constructed, which in these cases means the limits of height (2.13.3; 2.14.1; 2.155.2; 2.155.3).

    1.6.1.2 ὑψηλός

    The adjective was used in various grammatical and syntactical forms, likewise the noun discussed earlier. We can find it in all three adjective degrees: positive (17 times), comparative (2 times) and superlative (5 times). The syntactical functions it takes include: (a) noun (7.182.2), (b) predicative274 (1.110.3; 1.203.1; 2.124.3; 2.137.3 [× 2]; 2.137.4; 4.199.1; 7.112.1).

    The most common adjective used by Herodotus as a modifier is: (a) in the positive degree (2.127.3; 3.60.1; 4.23.2; 4.25.1; 5.16.2; 7.111.1; 7.176.3; 7.191.1; 7.198.2; 9.25.4); (b) in the comparative degree (1.98.4). It is particularly interesting to analyse its use in the superlative degree, since the Dionysus’ oracles among the Satrae were described by means of it: ἐπὶ τῶν ὀρέων τῶν ὑψηλοτάτων (7.111.2). In the next text, ὑψηλός occurs in combination with a partial complement and acts as a quantitative modifier. The Persians, climbing the highest of the mountains (ἐπὶ τὰ ὑψηλότατα τῶν ὀρέων), make sacrifices to Zeus (1.131.2). The superlative degree thus determines the place suitable for offering sacrifices to the gods and for the inquiries directed to their oracles.

    1.6.1.3 ὑψοῦ

    An adverb used by this author three times. In two texts it has a literal meaning. To protect against insects, towers were built in the fen lands of Egypt, because gnats cannot fly high due to the wind: οὐκ οἷοί τε εἰσὶ ὑψοῦ πέτεσθαι (2.95.1). The area of the city of Bubastis in Egypt was raised (ἐκκεχωσμένης ὑψοῦ) by means of embankments (2.138.2).

    What is interesting is the following use of this term. A wicked proposal of Lampon deserved Pausanias’ answer: ἐξαείρας γάρ με ὑψοῦ καὶ τὴν πάτρην καὶ τὸ ἔργον […] (9.79.1). The context shows that this is not about the physical ‘lifting up’, but about ‘elevating’ to a certain position, ‘exalting’ Pausanias, his family and his deeds. It seems then that the expression ἐξαείρας […] ὑψοῦ is metaphorical.

    1.6.1.4 ἀναβαίνω

    This verb, usually meaning ‘enter, ascend, get in’,275 is used by Herodotus 54 times. Sometimes it stands for to ‘disembark’ from a ship (5.100.1; 8.110.2) or to ‘mount’ a camel (1.80.2; 3.102.3). For male animals it means ‘to sire’ (1.192.3 [× 2]). Water, while rising, can ‘flood’ the country (1.193.1 ; 2.13.1). Usually, however, in the work of this author, it refers to the physical upward movement of a person.276 An interesting example can be found in the passage about the sacrifice made by the Persians: ἐπὶ τὰ ὑψηλότατα τῶν ὀρέων ἀναβαίνοντες (1.131.2). The action is definitely physical, but the place where the sacrifice of offered is significant. They need to ‘go up’ so they can make the right sacrifice to Zeus.

    In a metaphorical sense, this verb means: ‘returning’ to previous facts (4.82.1) or ‘taking over the power’ by the successor (1.109.4; 7.205.1) as well as ‘following’ the advice of the King’s advisor (7.10(8).2). However, these texts do not seem to be relevant to our research.

    1.6.1.5 ἀναιρέω

    The term is used by Herodotus 40 times, but in a very different sense both literally and metaphorically. In a literal sense, means ‘to lift’ an object (1.84.5; 2.36.2; 2.41.4; 4.128.1; 4.128.2; 4.196.2; 7.190.1) or body (4.14.4; 9.22.5; 9.23.2; 9.27.3). It may also mean ‘to conceive’ (3.108.2; 6.69.4).

    In a figurative sense, it has much more meanings. Rarely it stands for: ‘to undertake’ a task (7.16(1).2), hardship (6.108.1), penance (2.134.4 [× 2]) or ‘to save’ life (6.29.2). More often it refers to ‘winning’ a prize, especially in competitions,277 which is sometimes described by Herodotus as wearing a victory wreath (στεφανηφόρους, 5.102.3). Although this meaning is not related to religiousness, it has a rather characteristic feature of ‘reaching out’ for laurels, which only the best can win.

    Another figurative meaning of this term, quite popular in the ancient world, is ἀναιρέω as an activity performed by the oracles in Delphi (1.13.1; 1.13.2; 6.34.2; 6.52.5; 7.148.3; 9.33.2), Dodona (2.52.4), Ethiopia (2.139.3) and by the soothsayers in general (6.69.3). It seems, therefore, that the act of ‘giving the message’ expressed by ἀναιρέω refers to the announcement of the gods’ will. In this sense, therefore, it is important for us as a clue to understand this activity in terms of a reality hidden for man and known only to God and to the people he has chosen (at least on a lexical level).

    1.6.1.6 ἀναλαμβάνω

    A verb less common than the previous one – this author uses it 28 times. Usually in the literal sense of ‘picking up, taking away’: (a) in relation to people;278 (b) in relation to things.279

    In the metaphorical sense, it stands for: (a) ‘to take up’ an interrupted story (5.62.1); (b) ‘to take up, face’ danger (3.69.1); (c) ‘to regain, take over’ the reign (3.73.1; 7.154.1); (d) ‘to take up’ the appellations for the gods (2.4.3).

    There are two more figurative meanings of this term, which we encounter in the works of Herodotus, and which may be relevant to the subject under investigation (at least indirectly). The Carians took up the fight against the Persians, they failed and to start the fight again they had to ‘repair the loss’, literally ‘heal their wounds’: μετὰ δὲ τοῦτο τὸ τρῶμα ἀνέλαβόν τε καὶ ἀνεμαχέσαντο οἱ Κᾶρες (5.121.1). The phrase τὸ τρῶμα ἀνέλαβόν means ‘to heal, close’ the wounds, that is, to regain strength to fight.

    Another meaning of this term is discovered in the description of events in the life of Aristodemos, who, saving his life in the fight against the Persians, fell into dishonour and only in the Battle of Plataia, he repaired the guilt: ἐν τῇ ἐν Πλαταιῇσι μάχῃ ἀνέλαβε πᾶσαν τὴν ἐπενειχθεῖσαν αἰτίην (7.231.1). The phrase ἀνέλαβε πᾶσαν τὴν […] αἰτίην may mean ‘to erase, remove’ the guilt suffered by a man, and thus restore his dignity and respect. In a similar sense, we meet this term in the statement of Themistocles who drew on his experience of people who resume the fight after a defeat καὶ ἀναλαμβάνειν τὴν προτέρην κακότητα (8.109.2). The phrase we are analysing (ἀναλαμβάνειν τὴν προτέρην κακότητα) means to ‘repair’ an earlier failure, i.e. to restore the state from before the misfortune, disaster. So it seems that in both texts ἀναλαμβάνω means to restore, return to some safe condition that occurred before some unfortunate event.

    1.6.1.7 ἀνίστημι

    The term was used by Herodotus 18 times, however, it has quite a wide range of meanings in his work. In the transitive form, it means ‘to order somebody to rise’ (1.196.2; 1.196.4; 3.15.1; 5.71.2), ‘to take away’ (3.14.9; 4.158.2), ‘to construct, erect’ (1.165.1) and ‘to displace, desolate’ the country (5.29.2; 7.56.2; 7.220.3; 9.73.2; 9.106.4).

    In the intransitive form it stands for ‘to get up, rise’ (1.202.2; 2.60.2; 2.64.2 280). In this group three texts deserve special attention, which tell about ‘getting up, rising’ in a specific situation. The first example is the story of the construction of temples devoted to Athena in Assessos. They were built after Alyattes ‘recovered’ from his illness: ἐκ τῆς νούσου ἀνέστη (1.22.4). The story, however, does not seem to be about a simple ‘getting up’ from bed. If the author mentions it in this form, it must have been some particular disease from which the hero recovered. This verb then takes on the meaning ‘to recover, pull through, to overcome the disease’. In the next text, we read about the story of a woman from the Argive tribe and her two sons, Cleobis and Biton, who instead of oxen, hooked up to the wagon and thus took their mother to the temple of Hera. There, however, having made sacrifices, they went to sleep and οὐκέτι ἀνέστησαν (1.31.6). The phrase itself means: ‘they never rose’, suggesting their death in a dream. However, we meet another fragment of Histories , in which Herodotus reports on the rebellion initiated by the magicians against Cambyses, who ordered the servant to kill his brother Smerdis. When asked if he had done so, the servant replied that he had done so, questioning the possibility of rising from the dead: εἰ μέν νυν οἱ τεθνεῶτες ἀνεστᾶσι (3.62.4). It cannot be regarded as a confirmation of the faith in the resurrection. Yet, at least theoretically, such a possibility exists, and ἀνίστημι, which in previous examples meant ‘rising’ from illness or from sleep, here refers also to ‘rising’ from the dead.

    1.6.1.8 ἐγείρω

    This verb also has two forms: transitive and intransitive. In Herodotus’ writings we meet ἐγείρω mostly in the transitive form. Then it stands for ‘to take, collect’ (1.61.3; 1.62.3), ‘to provoke, incite’ e.g. to war (4.119.3; 5.90.1; 7.148.2; 7.220.3; 8.131.1; 8.142.2), ‘to collect’ e.g. supporters (1.59.4). There also appears another meaning, classified by Zofia Abramowiczówna as metaphorical: “if a storm should arise” (7.49.1).281

    The only time this author uses ἐγείρω is in the intransitive form in the sense of ‘getting up, waking up’. This example can be found in the legend of Heracles in the land of the Scythians: ἐγερθῆναι τὸν Ἡρακλέα (4.9.1). However, it does not seem that in this context this verb has any metaphorical meaning apart from ‘rising’ from a dream.

    1.6.1.9 ἄνω

    An adverb quite often used by Herodotus (46 times). However, it does not always perform this function, sometimes it is a preposition, which is combined with the genitive and then it stands for ‘above, over’.282 However, it usually is found as an adverb of place in such phrases as: ‘the upper regions’ of a country or a thing.283 In this sense, it may also mean the geographical direction, ‘north’ (1.72.1; 5.9.3). In relation to the human body or animal body it specifies the ‘upper’ part (2.68.3; 2.92.5; 9.83.2). Sometimes it refers to the ‘old times’ (6.53.3). In an idiomatic phrase, it combines with κάτω and means ‘turning something upside down’ (3.3.2).

    Usually, however, by means of ἄνω Herodotus describes the physical movement ‘upwards’ (1.93.3; 2.7.1; 2.8.1 [× 2]; 2.35.3; 4.18.1; 4.62.5 [× 2]; 7.23.2; 9.69.1). In this group of texts, two seem significant, in which this adverb functions as the predicative. In the description of Thracian deeds during the storm we read: τοηεύοντες ἄνω πρὸς τὸν οὀρανόν ἀπειλέουσι τῷ θεῷ (4.94.5) – “shoot[ing] arrows up towards the sky” is supposed to cause a reaction of the god. We read about a similar ritual in the next text. Darius, finding out about the union of Athenians and Ions established by Onesilos, puts an arrow on the string ἄνω πρὸς τὸν οὀρανόν ἀπεῖναι, calling out: “Zeus, that it may be granted me to take vengeance upon the Athenians!” (5.105.2). And in this case, the ‘discharging’ of the arrow from the bow is to provoke Zeus’ reaction. From the above texts we can conclude that the sphere defined as ἄνω (‘above, aloft’), is the space of the dwelling of the gods. Man through certain rituals (in this case, “discharging the arrow from the bow”) wants to reach this space and cause the desired reaction of the gods.

    1.6.1.10 ἄνωθην

    The adverb is used less frequently by Herodotus, and the meaning is less developed. In all texts, it means moving ‘from above’ (1.75.5; 1.84.5; 1.185.2; 2.17.4; 2.99.2; 4.105.1; 9.51.2). Any other meaning of importance for the subject under investigation can be detected.

    1.6.1.11 ἡ ἀνάστασις

    A noun used only once by this author, in a literal sense. This is how Herodotus described the Hellenes’ debate on the eviction of the Ions: ἀπικόμενοι δὲ ἐς Σάμον οἱ Ἕλληνες ἐβουλεύοντο περὶ ἀναστάσιος τῆς Ἰωνίης (9.106.2), which refers to the displacement, the eviction from the previous place.

    Summary

    Herodotus’ rich terminology on the category of height translates into equally abundant meanings. The adjective ὑψηλός indicates the place where sacrifices were offered to Zeus and the place where the oracle of Dionysus gave advice. Therefore, people who want to make sacrifices to the gods must ‘go upwards’ (ἀναβαίνω). Expecting a reaction of the gods, they follow the ritual of discharging arrows upwards towards heaven (ἄνω).

    The following terms express in relation to people the idea of gaining a reward (ἀναιρέω) or regaining lost dignity (ἀναλαμβάνω) and even the possibility (at least theoretical) of resurrection (ἀνίστημι).

    1.6.2 Thucydides

    A historian, Athenian aristocrat, son of Olorus, born around 460, died between 404 and 393 BC. He was thoroughly educated. Thucydides was probably a disciple of the philosopher Anaxagoras and the sophists Antiphon of Rhamnus and Prodicus of Ceos. In the Peloponnesian War as a strategist he failed to protect the city of Amphipolis in Thrace by Spartan (424 BC.) and was therefore sent by the Athenians into exile. For twenty years he lived in exile probably in his family estate in Thrace. He did not return to Athens until 404 after the Spartans had conquered the city; he died a few years later.284

    His main work is the unfinished history of the Peloponnesian War, known as The History of the Peloponnesian War , in Polish Wojna Peloponeska.285 The title is taken from the very first words of the work: Θουκυδίδης Ἀθηναῖος ξυνέγραψε τὸν πόλεμον τῶν Πελοποννησίων καὶ Ἀθηναίων.286 Some researches, however, give the title History.287

    In this work, Thucydides uses two of the terms we discussed from the first group (with the root ὑψο): τὸ ὕψος (5 times) and ὑψηλός (6 times). The second group (with the prefix ἀνα or the root ἀνω and cognates) includes: ἀναβαίνω (26 times), ἀναιρέω (32 times), ἀναλαμβάνω (26 times), ἀνίστημι (42 times), ἡ ἀνάστασις (3 times), ἐγείρω (1 time), ἄνω (25 times), ἄνωθεν (16 times) and ἐπαίρω (24 times).

    1.6.2.1 τὸ ὕψος

    This noun in the work of this author does not perform any special function except to determine the size of physical objects. Lacedaemonians learnt that a wall (τειχίζεται) was being built in Athens, which reached then a certain height (ὕψος) (1.91.1). In the construction of the walls (τὸ τεῖχος) of Piraeus the intended height (τὸ ὕψος) was only half reached (1.93.5). The height of the wall (τὸ ὕψος τοῦ τείχου) around Plataea was great (2.75.6). The wall (τὸ ὕψος) in Pylos from the port side was considerable (4.13.1). The use of (τὸ ὕψος) is unexpected in the idiomatic phrase: τοῦ ἀναγκαιοτάτου ὕψους (1.90.3); it stands for ‘a minimum height’ of the wall (τοῦ τείχους).

    1.6.2.2 ὑψηλός

    The use of this adjective by Thucydides is much more interesting in comparison to the previous noun, although here too we do not observe any metaphorical meaning. This author most often takes ὑψηλός as a modifier to describe: a platform (τὸ βῆμα) that Pericles, the son of Xanthippus climbs to give a Funeral Oration after the death of the first warriors: ἐπὶ βῆμα ὑψηλόν (2.34.8); a region (τὸ χωρίον) in which lies Aegitium ἐφ’ ὑψηλῶν χωρίων (3.97.2); Idomeni (Ἰδομενή) consisting of two peaks: δὺο λόφω […] ὑψηλώ (3.112.1); Athos (Ἄθος) – a high mountain: ὄρος ὑψηλόν (4.109.2).

    Twice Thucydides uses this adjective as a predicative. In the description of the construction of the Plataea fortifications we read about a certain construction made of wood and bricks, which, becoming high (ὑψηλόν γιγνόμενον) did not lose its durability (2.75.5). In the account of the fights between the Syracusans and the Athenians we read that the latter raised (ἐποικοδομήσαντες […] ὑψηλότερον, literally ‘built as higher’) the wall surrounding the city (7.4.3).

    We can see that Thucydides uses this term several times, but never in a figurative sense. The only variety is the specific syntactic constructions we find them in, as presented above.

    1.6.2.3 ἀναβαίνω

    This verb was always used by Thucydides literally and always in the sense of an upward movement: ‘to go up’, ‘to ascend’.288 Moreover, there is one small variant: ‘to board’ the ship (4.44.6). One case, despite its literal meaning, is of importance for our investigations: ἀναβαίνω. In the fragment about where the Lacedaemonians are to take the oath to the Hellens: ἀναβάντας δὲ ἐπὶ τὸν βωμὸν τοῦ Διὸς τοῦ Ὀλυμπίου (5.50.1). The meaning of the phrase ἀναβαίνω ἐπὶ τὸν βωμὸν is quite clear: “I am ascending to the altar”. What kind of altar it is, is explained to us by further words: τοῦ Διὸς τοῦ Ὀλυμπίου. Thus, it can be seen that it was important for people of that time to ascend (move up) a holy place. And the location of the altar itself was also crucial. In this way, a sphere intended for the gods was separated from the human space.

    1.6.2.4 ἀναιρέω

    The term is very often used by Thucydides (32 times), usually in the literal sense: ‘to pick up, take away’ something (4.12.1) or someone (2.84.4). Most often it means ‘to take’ the corpse (20 times).289 Sometimes it occurs in the sense of ‘destroying, demolishing’ (5.33.1; 5.77.1) or ‘to incite, go to’ the war (6.1.1; 6.38.3; 7.25.6; 8.24.2).

    In one group of texts, we encounter it in the sense of ‘an answer given by an oracle or a deity’. It is this kind of answer that was offered to: Epidamnians (1.25.1), Lacedaemonians (1.118.3; 2.54.4) by the Delphi oracle as well as Cylon of Athens (1.126.4).

    1.6.2.5 ἀναλαμβάνω

    The term which, in Thucydides’ works, literally means ‘to pick up, take something away’ something290 or someone.291 Sometimes this verb describes the act of ‘putting up’ a house (2.16.1) or ‘breaking up’ (literally ‘a camp’; 5.7.3).

    Metaphorically speaking, it can mean ‘to pull through’ from the illness, that is, to recover. In this way the author writes about the situation in Athens: ἄρτι δ᾽ ἀνειλήφει ἡ πόλις ἑαυτὴν ἀπὸ τῆς νόσου (6.26.2). The combination of the verb ἀναλαμβάνω with the prepositional phrase ἀπὸ τῆς νόσου, clearly indicates the meaning of this expression: ‘to recover’ from the plague, that is ‘to cure’ its effects. Another figurative meaning of this verb is ‘to recover, regain’ something. With these words Pericles encourages the Athenians to fight for freedom: ἢν ἀντιλαμβανόμενοι αὐτῆς διασώσωμεν, ῥᾳδίως ταῦτα ἀναληψομένην (2.62.3). If they secure freedom in the struggle, they will regain (ἀναλαμβάνω) all previously lost goods. The aim of the actions undertaken by Brasidas, the Lacedaemonian, is to regain Nisaia: λέγων ἐν ἐλπίδι εἶναι ἀναλαβεῖν Νίσαιαν (4.71.1). Here, however, attention is rather drawn to the military action aimed at ‘recapturing’ the city. A similar meaning this verb has in the next text describing the ‘recapturing’ of Antandrus by the Athenians: ἀναλαμβάνουσι τὸ χωρίον πάλιν (4.75.1). In a slightly different tone Alcibiades said to the Lacedaemonian chiefs about his desire to regain his homeland: ἀλλ᾽ ὃς ἂν ἐκ παντὸς τρόπου διὰ τὸ ἐπιθυμεῖν πειραθῇ αὐτὴν ἀναλαβεῖν (6.92.4). However, the meaning of this verb still remains in the military sphere. At least, this is the context of Alcibiades’ statement.292

    1.6.2.6 ἀνίστημι

    Among the terms we analysed, it is this verb that was most commonly used by Thucydides, both in the transitive and intransitive forms. But it usually has a literal meaning: ‘to stand up, to get up’,293 ‘to make somebody rise, to raise’.294 This last meaning has two more variants in the meaning: ‘call to arms’295 and ‘evict’.296 Only in two texts do we encounter a figurative meaning of the term. In one of them it means to ‘recover’ from an illness: τοὺς δὲ καὶ λήθη ἐλάμβανε παραυτίκα ἀναστάντας τῶν πάντων ὁμοίως (2.49.8). In the next text it expresses ‘reassuring’: καὶ παραινέσεις ἄλλας τε ἐποιοῦντο ἐν σφίσιν αὐτοῖς ἀνιστάμενοι (8.76.3). However, these meanings do not seem to have any particular significance for the issue under investigation. The fact of ‘recovering from an illness’ could mean the restoration of man to his original condition, but it can also have the literal meaning of ‘getting up’ from the bed of illness, just like from the ‘bed’ in which somebody slept.

    1.6.2.7 ἡ ἀνάστασις

    This noun remains within the same semantic field as the verb discussed above and it usually means ‘leaving’ the temple (1.133.1), the place residence (2.15.1), or the ‘withdrawal’ of the army (7.75.1).

    1.6.2.8 ἐγείρω

    The verb was used by this author only once in the sense of ‘inciting’ to war. We find it in the decision to fight the Corinthians against the Athenians (7.75.1).

    1.6.2.9 ἄνω

    An adverb quite often used by this author and in quite different meanings. But always in the literal sense. It stands for primarily an ‘upward’ movement (3.22.4; 4.34.2; 4.130.3; 7.4.1; 7.4.2) or, as a synonym of ἄνωθεν, ‘from on high’ (4.48.3), or the location of something ‘up, aloft’ (2.48.2; 3.34.1; 3.34.2; 4.54.2; 4.57.1; 4.66.3; 4.69.3; 4.112.3; 7.54.1; 7.60.2; 7.60.3; 7.65.2). In several texts it means ‘inland’ (1.93.7; 1.137.3; 2.83.1; 2.97.2; 7.80.5). Once it describes a ‘straight’ movement in some direction (8.88.1). In one of the texts we find an interesting phrase with this adverb. It reports on the plans of Macedonians who wanted to use the horsemen προσμεταπεμψάμενοι ἀπὸ τῶν ἄνω ξυμμάχων (2.100.5). The term οἱ ἄνω ξυμμάχων means the inhabitants of the ‘upper’ land, i.e. the highlanders. Apart from, undoubtedly, an interesting name describing the inhabitants of this land, the meaning is of little importance for this research.

    1.6.2.10 ἄνωθεν

    Similarly to the adverb described above, this one always has a literal meaning in the works of Thucydides: the movement ‘from above’ (2.49.7; 2.52.4; 2.102.2; 3.21.4; 3.23.1; 4.75.2; 4.108.1; 7.44.8; 7.84.4) or from the interior of the land (1.59.2; 2.99.4; 3.115.1; 4.107.1) or, as a synonym of ἄνω, the location of something aloft (3.68.3; 6.102.4; 7.63.2).

    1.6.2.11 ἐπαίρω

    A verb which has the richest range of meanings in the works of this author. Literally it means: ‘to incite’ war (1.42.2), ‘to act’ against (4.108.3; 8.2.1), ‘to be seduced’ (1.43.1; 1.81.6; 1.83.3; 1.84.2; 3.38.2; 7.13.2), ‘to be moved’ (2.11.2; 3.45.1; 3.45.6), ‘to be elevated’ by a fact (3.37.5; 5.14.2; 7.41.3; 7.51.1; 8.89.4), ‘to man’ a crew (8.97.1). As we see, among these meanings there are also metaphors. However, they are not relevant to our investigations.

    However, there is another meaning that appears in Thucydides’ writings in phrases with ἐπαίρω. It is the pejorative aspect of: ‘being driven into pride’. This is how the attitude of the Corkirians towards the Corinthians was defined: ναυτικῷ δὲ καὶ πολὺ προύχειν ἔστιν ὅτε ἐπαιρόμενοι (1.25.4). This meaning also appears in the Corinthians’ statements about the danger of falling into pride because of war successes: oὐκ ἐντεθύμηται θράσει ἀπίστῳ ἐπαιρόμενος (1.120.5). The Scionaeans failed to avoid this trap and are elated at the words of praise from Brasidas: οὐκ ἐντεθύμηται θράσει ἀπίστῳ ἐπαιρόμενος (4.121.1).

    It is the brave Corinthians who managed to avoid pride as we read: καὶ μήτε τῇ κατὰ πόλεμον εὐτυχίᾳ ἐπαίρεσθαι (1.120.3). Lacedaemonians also speak of the necessity of avoiding the danger of pride after some success: διὰ τὸ μὴ τῷ ὀρθουμένῳ αὐτοῦ πιστεύοντες ἐπαίρεσθαι ἐν τῷ εὐτυχεῖν (4.18.4). Similarly, the speech of Nicholas to the Athenians, about the pride following the failure of friends: χρὴ δὲ μὴ πρὸς τὰς τύχας τῶν ἐναντίων ἐπαίρεσθαι (6.11.6).

    Summary

    Among quite rich vocabulary referring to the category of height, it is the literal meaning that prevails in Thucydides’ works.297 Only in a few texts does it have a moral and religious meaning. Usually it refers to human actions. Man, therefore, can become haughty, conceited (ἐπαίρω; 1.25.4; 1.120.5; 4.121.1) or manages to avoid it (1.120.3; 4.18.4; 6.11.6). People also take action to regain (ἀναλαμβάνω) something (city; 4.71.1, homeland; 6.92.4, property; 2.62.3). In relation to a deity, people ask for advice from gods or the oracle and receive an answer (ἀναιρέω; 1.25.1; 1.118.3; 1.126.4; 2.54.4). Offering sacrifices, people must ascent (ἀναβαίνω; 5.50.1) an elevated platform or the altar.

    1.6.3 Xenophon

    Xenophon, son of Gryllus, a wealthy Athenian; a disciple and friend of Socrates. He lived between 430 and 335 BC. In 401 he enlisted in the army and, under the leadership of Cyrus the Younger, set off on an expedition against his brother, Artaxerxes II. In the same year, after losing the Battle of Cunaxa, he became one of the main strategists who ensured that the defeated army returned from the interior of Asia to the Black Sea.298 Then he entered the service of the Thracian Duke of Seuthes, and later of the Spartan King Agesilaus. This resulted in the loss of Athenian citizenship and being sent into exile. He settled in Scillus, Elis, where he devoted himself to farm work, hunting and writing his works. As a result of wars between Sparta and Thebes, he lost his property and moved to Corinth. As Athens entered into an alliance with Sparta against Thebes, the sentence imposed on Xenophon was no longer valid. But he probably never came back to Athens.299

    Xenophon’s literary legacy can be divided into three groups: historical and biographical works, Socratic works and other works of different character. The first group includes: Hellenica , Anabasis or The Expedition of Cyrus , Cyropaedia or The Education of Cyrus , Agesilaus . The second group lists: Memorabilia , The Apology of Socrates , Symposium , Oeconomicus . In the third group we have: Hipparchikos , Polity of the Lacedaemonians , Hiero , On Horsemanship , On Hunting , Ways and Means .300

    Almost all of these works include terms that are interesting from our perspective. From the group with the root ὑψο we can find: τὸ ὕψος (10 times), ὑψηλός (27 times). The group with the prefix ἀνα οr the root ἀνω and cognates includes: ἀναβαίνω (125 times), ἀναιρέω (50 times), ἀναλαμβάνω (45 times), ἀνίστημι (112 times), ἐγείρω (19 times), ἄνω (53 times), ἄνωθεν (17 times) and ἐπαίρω (17 times).

    1.6.3.1 τὸ ὕψος

    This noun only has the literal meaning in the works of this author: ‘height’.301

    1.6.3.2 ὑψηλός

    The term is more frequently used by Xenophon than the noun discussed above. It also has a wider range of meanings, but always literal as well: ‘high’.302

    1.6.3.3 ἀναβαίνω

    A verb used many times by Xenophon (125 times), always in a literal sense: ‘to go up’,303 ‘to mount’ a horse,304 ‘to board’ the ship,305 ‘to ascend, climb’ a platform for delivering speeches.306

    1.6.3.4 ἀναιρέω

    The usage of this words seems slightly different; usually its meaning is literal: ‘to collect’ the bodies of the dead,307 ‘to pick up’ an object308 or a person (to save the person),309 ‘to wage’ a war,310 ‘to remove’ someone from the office,311 ‘to take the power away’,312 ‘to destroy’ something.313

    There is, however, a group of texts in which it stands for ‘the answer’ given by a deity or the oracle. Such an answer (ἀνεῖλεν) Xenophon received from Apollo who listed the gods to whom the former was to offer sacrifices (Anabasis 3.1.6). Following the advice of the god (ἀνεῖλεν), this protagonist made his sacrifices to these gods (Anabasis 3.1.8). Similarly, he obeyed the answer (ἀνεῖλεν) given by the oracle (Anabasis 5.3.7), when he bought a piece of land in Olympia for a goddess in a place indicated by the oracle. While staying at Seuthes’, Xenophon made an offering to Zeus the Ruler to get a confirmation whether to stay or leave with the army. God answered (ἀναιρεῖ) that he was to leave (Anabasis 7.6.44). Also, Socrates received an answer (ἀναιρεῖ) from Pythia that he should preserve the customs of the state (Memorabilia 1.3.1). A similar response (ἀνεῖλε) was quoted in the next work (cf. Polity of the Lacedaemonians 8.5). Chaerephon also seeks advice from the deity and Apollo replies (ἀνεῖλεν) through the Delphic oracle (The Apology of Socrates 1.14).

    1.6.3.5 ἀναλαμβάνω

    The frequency of using this verb is comparable to that discussed above. Its meaning is mostly literal: ‘to take’ somebody314 or something,315 ‘to gather’ an army,316 ‘to pick’ a person,317 ‘to win’ a woman,318 ‘to put oneself at the head’, ‘to take’ power,319 ‘to recover’ something.320

    The latter meaning gains a different shade in texts of a more abstract nature, for example as “regaining” power. We can find this word in Xenophon’s relation on the message of the Thebans to Athens: ὦ ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι, βούλοισθ᾽ ἂν τὴν ἀρχὴν ἣν πρότερον ἐκέκτησθε ἀναλαβεῖν πάντες ἐπιστάμεθα (Hellenica 3.5.10). The Athenians wanted to ‘recover the dominion’ (τὴν ἀρχὴν). Teleutias also had a similar intention, forming alliances with the kings of the neighbouring countries, εἴπερ βούλοιτο τὴν ἀρχὴν ἀναλαβεῖν (Hellenica 5.2.38). The problem was once again how to regain power (τὴν ἀρχὴν). The treatise Ways and Means also mentions the possibility of recovering it: τὴν δὲ ἡ γεμονίαν βουλόμενοί τινες ἀναλαβεῖν τὴν πόλιν (Ways and Means 5.5). However, this verb refers to a slightly different issue in the conversation between Pericles and Socrates. The former notes: τί ἂν ποιοῦντες ἀναλάβοιεν τὴν ἀρχαίαν ἀρετήν (Memorabilia 3.5.14). The aim here is to regain the initial valour (τὴν ἀρχαίαν ἀρετήν).

    In yet another figurative sense, we can find this term, namely as ‘elevating’ in spirit (Hellenica 6.5.21). This, however, is of no significance to this research.

    1.6.3.6 ἀνίστημι

    The frequency of this word is quite high in the works of this author (he used it 112 times). As in previous cases, its meaning is almost always literal: ‘to get up, rise’321 or ‘wake up’.322

    In one text, however, we see a very interesting meaning. In the introduction to the treatise On Hunting , the author presented those chosen by gods who received special privileges from them. Among them, Cephalus and Asclepius were mentioned: Ἀσκληπιὸς δὲ καὶ μειζόνων ἔτυχεν, ἀνιστάναι μὲν τεθνεῶτας, νοσοῦντας δὲ ἰᾶσθαι: διὰ δὲ ταῦτα θεὸς ὣς παρ᾽ ἀνθρώποις ἀείμνηστον κλέος ἔχει (On Hunting 1.6). It was rendered as: “Asclepius won yet, greater preferment – to raise the dead, to heal the sick; and for these things he has everlasting fame as a god among men”. The combination of two verb forms is of key importance here: ἀνιστάναι τεθνεῶτας. The first form is infinitivus praesentis activi from ἀνίστημι, the second is participium praesentis activi from θνήσκω. The whole phrase undoubtedly means ‘to raise the dead’, and the form of perfectum of the verb θνήσκω confirms that the person is not seemingly dead, but who certainly died and this condition lasted till the intervention of Asclepius. It is worth noting that the cult of Asclepius lasted from the 6th century BC for almost a thousand years, and developed especially in the Epidaurus and spread throughout the Greek world.323 It seems justified, therefore, that this author living at the turn of the 5th and 4th centuries BC mentioned this hero, who was famous for his medical knowledge and with time came to be revered as god the healer. It is important, however, that it is Xenophon that for the first time mentions the resurrection of the dead and the healing of the sick by Asclepius.

    1.6.3.7 ἐγείρω

    The meaning of this verb is not diversified in the works of this author. It has only literal meaning: ‘to get up, wake up’,324 ‘to watch out’,325 ‘to incite’ a war.326

    1.6.3.8 ἄνω

    The scope of meaning of this adverb is similar to that presented in the works of previous authors. So the literal meaning prevails: ‘upwards, up, above’327 and ‘into the interior’.328

    Only in one text, although the meaning ἄνω is also literal, we find a reference to the action of a deity: καίτοι ὕδωρ μέν ὁ ἄνω θεὸς παρέχει (Oeconomicus 20.11). This action is “sending (παρέχω) rain by a god on high (ὁ ἄνω θεὸς)”, that is from heaven, which determines the sphere of existence of the gods and the space from which they perform their actions.

    1.6.3.9 ἄνωθεν

    An adverb used by Xenophon in a similar range of meanings as the previous one. The prevailing literal meaning is: ‘from on high’,329 ‘from the inferior’ of the country.330

    However, we come across two texts in which this adverb may point to a ‘place’ where the gods work. In the first, the meaning is not clear: κεραυνός τε γὰρ ὅτι μὲν ἄνωθεν ἀφίεται (Memorabilia 4.3.14). The phrase ἄνωθεν ἀφίεται indicates that thunder “was sent down from above, from heaven”, but not necessarily by the gods. However, the action of the latter is indicated by the immediate context in which the invisible servants of the gods are mentioned. In a similar vein, another text seems to be maintained, in which Socrates states: ἄνωθεν μὲν γε ὕοντες ὠφελοῦσιν, ἄνωθεν δὲ φῶς παρέχουσιν (Symposium 6.7). The immediate context shows that it is the action of the gods: θεῶν ἐπιμελοίμην, which means ‘care of the gods’.331 And this care is expressed in sending “from above, that is from the heavens, rain (ὕοντες ὠφελοῦσιν) and light (φῶς παρέχουσιν). Therefore, it seems justified to say that Xenophon was convinced the gods take various actions in their place of dwelling, which are directed towards the earth.

    1.6.3.10 ἐπαίρω

    The verb, as in the works of other authors, also in Xenophon’s texts has quite a wide range of meanings: ‘to pick up’ something or someone,332 ‘to elevate in spirit’,333 ‘to wish, desire’,334 ‘to arouse, incite’,335 ‘to take up’ discourse.336

    In the next three texts, we observe that the meaning refers to man. Cambyses addresses Cyrus with the following words: εἰ δὲ ἢ σύ, ὦ Κῦρε, ἐπαρθεὶς ταῖς παρούσαις τύχαις ἐπιχειρήσεις […] (Cyropaedia 8.5.24). In this text, the verb ἐπαίρω means ‘to be proud, to take pride’. That is the attitude Cambyses accuses Cyrus of.

    A similar meaning of this word is found in Pericles’ conversation with Socrates, but in relation to the whole nation. The former notes: τεταπείνωται μὲν ἡ τῶν Ἀθηναίων δόξα πρὸς τοὺς Βοιωτούς, ἐπῆρται δὲ τὸ τῶν Θηβαίων φρόνημα πρὸς τοὺς Ἀθηναίους (Memorabilia 3.5.4). The decisive factor here is the antithetical construction, in which we read that the glory of the Athenians (ἡ τῶν Ἀθηναίων δόξα) to the Boeotians was humiliated (τεταπείνωται), and the pride of the Thebans (τὸ τῶν Θηβαίων φρόνημα) to the Athenians was exalted (ἐπῆρται). This stylistic means is based on two verbs with opposite meanings: ταπεινόω (‘to humiliate, disgrace’) and ἐπαίρω (‘raise, exalt, extoll’). They form a kind of antithesis also known in the Greek world: what is high will be humiliated and what is lowly will be exalted. In both cases, however, the category ‘low’ is used to define one people, the Athenians.

    The positive understanding of the meaning of this verb is discovered in a conversation between Socrates and Glaucon, in which the former encourages the latter to gain a ‘good name’ if ἐπαρεῖς δὲ τὸν πατρῷον οἶκον, αὐξήσεις δὲ τὴν πατρίδα (Memorabilia 3.6.2). We find a synonymous parallelism in which ‘father’s house’ (τὸν πατρῷον οἶκον), that is the family and the fatherland (ἡ πατρίς) are to be appropriately ‘exalted’ (ἐπαίρω) and ‘enlarged, enhanced’ (αὐξάνω). Undoubtedly, both actions are aimed at bringing glory to one’s own family and nation.

    Summary

    Among the large number of terms used by Xenophon which refer to height (475 in total), only a small group is of moral and religious significance (6 terms in 18 places337). In a metaphorical sense, these terms refer to a man who has a desire to regain (ἀναλαμβάνω) power (Hellenica 3.5.10; 5.2.38; Ways and Means 5.5) or valour (Memorabilia 3.5.14). Xenophon included various meanings in the verb ἐπαίρω in describing the attitudes of people or whole nations. Someone can become proud (Cyropaedia 8.5.24), and the pride of the whole nation can be exalted (Memorabilia 3.5.4). However, man should strive to gain a ‘good name’ by bringing glory to his family and homeland (Memorabilia 3.6.2).

    In relation to the gods, Xenophon uses slightly richer terminology. The god is on high (ἄνω), and from there he performs his actions (Oeconomicus 20.11). He sends from above (ἄνωθεν) thunder (Memorabilia 4.3.14) and rain and light (Symposium 6.7). At the request of man, god answers (ἀναιρέω) through his oracle (Anabasis 3.1.6; 3.1.8; 5.3.7; 7.6.44; Memorabilia 1.3.1; Polity of the Lacedaemonians 8.5; The Apology of Socrates 1.14). What is particularly interesting, however, is the use of the verb ἀνίστημι, which this author, probably for the first time in Greek literature, directly describes the ‘resurrection of the dead’ by Asclepius (On Hunting 1.6). He was not a god, but a hero, who from the 6th century BC onwards received divine honour in large parts of the Greek world.

    1.6.4 Polybius

    A future historian, a critic of his predecessors Timaeus and Phylarchus as far as the concept of historiography is concerned, and a follower of Thucydides, lived from about 200 to about 118 BC. He was the son of Lycortas, an influential politician and leader of the Achaean League. From his youth he took part in the political and military life in his homeland until 168 BC, when the Romans, after the victory at Pydna, demanded thousand hostages from the most prominent Achaean families. Among them was Polybius. He stayed in Rome until 151, when he was released along with three hundred surviving hostages. He returned to his country, although he often left it on numerous journeys. He spent the last years of his life in his home country. He died at the age of 82.338

    His greatest work is The Histories in forty books.339 “From this work we only have only five initial books (I–V), books VI–XVIII (except XVII) in excerpts (the so-called Excerpta antiqua) and books XIX–XXXIX in excerpts (Excerpta Porphyrogennetaee). These are the history of the West from 264 to 168 (or 148), the history of Greece from 220 to 168 (or 148) and of the East from 220 to 168 (or 148)”.340 Other unpreserved works by Polybius include Philopoemen’s Life in three books,341 a work on tactics and a monograph on the Numantine War.342

    In The Histories Polibius uses three of the terms in question from the first group (with the root ὑψο): ὑψόω (1 time), τὸ ὕψος (14 times) and ὑψηλός (6 times). The second group (with the prefix ἀνα or the root ἀνω and cognates) is represented by: ἀναβαίνω (22 times), ἀναιρέω (33 times), ἀναλαμβάνω (104 times), ἀνίστημι (34 times), ἐγείρω (9 times), ἄνω (19 times), ἄνωθεν (2 times) and ἐπαίρω (23 times).

    1.6.4.1 ὑψόω

    Although Polybius only uses the verb ὑψόω once, he does so in a quite distinctive way. Describing Apelles’ arrival at Philip’s court, in view of the fact that he was not accepted by the king, he makes the following reflection: βραχεῖς γὰρ δὴ πάνυ καιροὶ πάντας μὲν ἀνθρώπους ὡς ἐπίπαν ὑψοῦσι καὶ πάλιν ταπεινοῦσι […] (5.26.12). It was rendered in English as follows: “So true it is all the world over that a moment exalts and abases us”. And then the author comments on the situation: “They indeed are exactly like counters on a board, which, according to the pleasure of the calculator, are one moment worth a farthing, the next a talent. Even so courtiers at the king’s nod are one moment at the summit of prosperity, at another the objects of pity” (5.26.13). So we recognise here the figurative meaning of this verb. ‘To exalt’ (ὑψοῦσι) would mean achieving a certain dignity, a position at the royal court, while ‘to abase’ (ταπεινοῦσι) – the loss of it.

    1.6.4.2 τὸ ὕψος

    A noun repeatedly used by this author, however, usually to determine the physical height of an object or a thing. The only difference is the use of a preposition in some cases.

    It is assigned the following meanings: the height of the wall (τοῦ τείχους; 4.83.4, 9.19.5, 9.19.6) or the whole (παντός) height of the wall (9.19.8); making (κατεπύκνωσε343) holes in the wall (τρῆμασι τὸ τεῖχος) at human height (ἀνδρομήκους; 8.7.6); the height of a crater or chasm (κρατῆρος; 34.11.15).

    In prepositional constructions, the most common is the use of εἰς with accusative. The mountain (ὄρος) rises to a height (εἰς ὕψος; 1.56.4). Media (Μηδία) differs from other Asian countries because of its highlands (εἰς ὕψος; 5.44.3). Acrolisson (Ἀκρόλισσον) is inaccessible due to height (εἰς ὕψος; 8.15.3). Houses (τὰς […] οἰκίας) rise to a height (εἰ ὕψος; 9.21.10). The walls (τὰ τείχη) rise to a height (εἰς ὕψος; 10.13.8). We also meet other prepositions in combination with τὸ ὕψος: a) ἀπό with genitive: the ship’s prow (τῆς πρώρας) falling from a height (ἀφ’ ὕψος) submerged in the water (8.8.4); b) πρός with accusative: the hills (λόφοι) called Cynoscephalae rise significantly to a height (πρός ὕψος; 18.5.9); c) περί with genitive: in 34.10.15 we read that Polybius, speaking of the size and height of the Alps (περὶ τοῦ μεγέθους τῶν Ἄλπεων καὶ τοῦ ὕψους) compares them with the highest mountains of Greece.

    1.6.4.3 ὑψηλός

    This adjective is not very often used by this author but in various forms. We come across it both in the function of a modifier and a predicative in the comparative as well as in the superlative form.

    As a modifier it describes the size of hills (βουνοὺς […] ὑψηλοὺς; 3.83.1), slopes (ὄχθων ὑψηλῶν; 18.3.4), Aemon as the highest mountain of the Pontus range (ὄρος […] ὑψηλότατον; 24.4.1), the highest house (οἴκησιν ὑψηλοτάτην; 34.1.17).

    In the function of the predicative it connects with the verb εἰμι. The hills on which Menelaion is located are unusually high (ὄντας […] διαφερόντως ὑψηλούς; 5.22.3). From the work “Περὶ τῆς ὑπὸ τὸν ἰσημερινὸν οἰκήσεως” (referred to in 34.1.7) we learn that the temperate zone (ζώνη εὔκρατος) is the highest (ὑψηλοτάτη ἐστί; 34.1.16).

    1.6.4.4 ἀναβαίνω

    The verb can be encountered in the sense of ‘ascending’ a higher place344 or an elevated, a rostrum.345

    What draws attention, however, is one text that describes Philip of Macedonia’s ascent to the Messenian acropolis in order to make a sacrifice to Zeus: ἀναβάντος μετὰ τῆς θεραπείας καὶ θύοντος (7.12.1). It is not clear whether the verb ἀναβαίνω should be interpreted as ‘ascending’ the acropolis, which was located higher than the whole city, or ‘ascending’ the platform in order to make a sacrifice. Then it would refer to a kind of holy place, belonging to the gods, where the offering is made. The latter meaning is not excluded, especially since the acropolis, losing its significance as a fortress, became a place of worship of the gods.346

    1.6.4.5 ἀναιρέω

    A term used by Polybius in a slightly broader range of meanings than the previous one. Primarily the meaning is literal: ‘to delete’, in the broadest sense of the word ‘to kill’ somebody,347 ‘to remove’ the body (5.86.2), ‘to destroy’ something material (6.8.1; 18.3.4; 18.3.8; 30.20.6; 29.22.4), ‘to incite’ a war (20.5.3), ‘to come into’ conflict (9.11.1), or simply ‘to raise’ something (12.4d.6) or ‘to delete’ (39.3.3). In relation to persons it may also mean ‘punishing’ someone for something (1.10.4).

    In a metaphorical sense it also has several meanings: ‘to repair’ a defect (6.45.3; 6.46.7) or ‘to reverse’ a positive value (1.14.6; 12.25b.4; 15.7.6), ‘to break off’ an alliance (31.20.2). In spite of such a rich range of meanings of the verb, it is difficult to find any religious or moral denotation among them.

    1.6.4.6 ἀναλαμβάνω

    It is this verb that is most frequently used by this author (104 times). It usually has a literal meaning: ‘to take’ in relation to people,348 animals (1.19.1) and objects (2.6.6; 3.9.3; 5.13.1; 16.3.4; 28.21.1; 30.4.11; 31.22.8; 34.3.6) or ‘to put on’ clothes (8.19.7; 26.1.5; 26.1a.2). Sometimes it denotes ‘recovering’ after an illness (2.18.5; 3.60.2; 3.68.14; 3.80.2; 3.85.5; 12.26.6)349 or ‘taking up’ a task (1.14.5; 6.9.3; 20.8.1) or ‘passing’ a resolution (2.46.6; 25.4.5). Sometimes it means ‘to incite’ a war (1.71.5; 1.88.11; 2.46.1; 3.2.5; 3.8.8; 4.32.4; 5.1.3; 7.13.1; 38.9.8).

    In several texts we find a reference to more abstract concepts: τὸ χρήσιμον καὶ τὸ τερπνὸν ἐκ τῆς ἱστορίας ἀναλαβεῖν (1.4.11); ἀναλάβῃ τὴν αἰτίαν (2.50.8); τὰς ἐμπειρίας καὶ τέχνας αὐτῆς ἕνεκα τῆς ἐπιστήμης ἀναλαμβάνει (3.4.11); τὸν τῶν ἡττωμένων ζῆλον ἀναλαμβάνειν (9.10.6); τῶν ἐκτὸς ἐπιτηδευμάτων μέχρι τινὸς ἀναλαβεῖν (9.20.8); τὴν ἐπὶ σωφροσύνῃ δόξαν ἀναλαβεῖν (31.25.2). However, none of these cases refers to religious values.

    There is another group of texts in which ἀναλαμβάνω refers to ‘power’. In this sense, the term ἀναλαμβάνω διάδημα is used: 5.42.7 (ἀναλάβῃ διάδημα), 15.26.5 (τὸ διάδημ᾽ ἀναλαμβάνειν). We also meet phrases: τὴν ἀρχὴν ἀνειληφέναι (21.25.1) or ἀνέλαβεν ἐξουσίαν (38.13.7). With regard to ‘respect, dignity’ we read: ἃς πρότερον εἶχον ἐν Ἀχαΐᾳ τιμὰς οἱ φυγάδες ἀναλάβοιεν (35.6.3). All these texts it is only the human authority that is to be regained or acquired, which does not fall within the scope of our research. Possibly. it only allows us to realize that this dignity was granted by putting on the head what is called in the Greek language τὸ διάδημα. It was a headband especially on the tiaras of Persian kings, hence the royal diadem in general.350

    1.6.4.7 ἀνίστημι

    Like many other authors, also in Polybius’ work ἀνίστημι is used in the form of a transitive (‘to order to rise, lift, raise’) and a non-transitive (‘to stand up, rise’). In the first form we meet it in: 5.17.5; 6.40.2; 13.7.8; 15.32.8; 29.27.10; 30.9.10. In this sense it also means ‘to destroy’ (4.25.4; 4.53.4; 21.35.2; 28.8.3; 38.2.13) or ‘to rebuild’. (16.1.5). In the second form it is used more frequently: 8.5.8; 15.1.7; 15.19.3; 18.36.2; 18.36.5; 21.18.7; 22.5.10; 22.8.1; 22.8.9; 22.9.5; 22.10.4; 22.12.8; 26.1.14; 26.1a.2; 28.4.9; 28.7.4; 28.7.5; 28.7.8; 29.14.2; 33.16.7; 35.4.9; 35.6.1.

    In all these texts, this verb has a literal meaning, so it does not contribute to our investigations.

    1.6.4.8 ἐγείρω

    Similarly, also this verb in the work of Polybius is used in the transitive form (‘to awaken’) and the intransitive form (‘to get up’ in the perfectum tense, and cognates of ‘to watch, to be vigilant’). The first form is present in: 5.48.3; 8.37.4. In this sense it also means ‘to instigate’ war or riots: 2.19.1; 15.1.2; 6.36.3; 8.20.8; 9.18.7; 33.21.2; 36.16.3). In each of these texts this verb has a literal meaning, so it hardly falls within the scope of this research.

    1.6.4.9 ἄνω

    In the work of Polybius, the meaning of this adverb is mostly literal and it describes geographical areas,351 political regions,352 structures (8.4.5) or body parts (12.13.1). Only once does it appear in the idiomatic phrase ἄνω καὶ κάτω (29.27.10), in the sense of ‘everything’. It is impossible to find any metaphorical meaning in the texts in question.

    1.6.4.10 ἄνωθεν

    As previously, also this adverb has exclusively literal meaning and was used by this author to describe a river (5.22.6) and to build the shield of a Roman soldier (6.23.4).

    1.6.4.11 ἐπαίρω

    This verb in the literal sense in Polybius’ work means ‘to raise, hoist’ the sail (1.61.7; 16.15.2). Three texts mention a certain Eperatus353 of Pharae, who was elected Strategus by the assembly of Achaeans (4.82.8; 5.1.7; 5.91.4).

    In the passive voice, it usually means ‘to be haughty, to be conceited’. It is then combined with a noun (or adjective354) in dative. Sometimes in combination with prepositions ἐπί (+ Dat.), πρός (+ Acc.), ἔκ (+ Gen.).355 Usually in such cases, ἐπαίρω has a figurative meaning, both in a positive sense (‘to be elevated, to be proud’) and in a pejorative sense (‘to be arrogant, to be conceited’). Then its meaning depends on the noun (adjective) with which it is combined and on the context.

    The first meaning (positive) is most often in the combination with the terms referring to human feelings. We encounter three times ἡ ἐλπίς. The Aetolians formed an alliance with Antigonus and Cleomenes, hoping to occupy the cities: τότε παραπλησίαις ἐλπίσιν ἐπαρθέντες (2.45.2). They also spread terror among their enemies as a result of the expectations associated with the presence of the Romans and King Attalus: προσφάτως ἐπηρμένοι ταῖς ἐλπίσιν ἐπὶ τῇ Ῥωμαίων καὶ τῇ τοῦ βασιλέως Ἀττάλου παρουσίᾳ (10.41.1). Publius, on the other hand, expressed his surprise when he spoke to the tribunes about what hopes they cherished to rebel: ποίαις ἐλπίσιν ἐπαρθέντες ἐπεβάλοντο ποιεῖσθαι τὴν ἀπόστασιν (11.28.1). The valour (ὁ θυμός) of Hannibal was raised as a result of good news from the Gauls and Carthage: προσπεπτωκότων δὲ προσφάτως αὐτῷ καὶ τῶν ἐκ τῆς Καρχηδόνος, ἐπαρθεὶς τῷ θυμῷ (3.34.7). The troops of Molon, the ruler of the country of the Medes, were elevated in their ‘fervour’ (ἡ ὁρμή) because the enemy commanders hid themselves in their fortresses: καὶ τῶν ἰδίων δυνάμεων ἐπηρμένων ταῖς ὁρμαῖς (5.45.2).

    Certain events can have the same effect – elevate (ἐπαίρω) in spirit. This is how Philip’s mercenaries felt encouraged by the appearance of the ‘reserves’ (ἡ ἐφεδρεία) of the Illyrians and peltasts: ἐπαρθέντας τῇ τῶν Ἰλλυριῶν καὶ πελταστῶν ἐφεδρείᾳ (5.23.4). The failure (ἡ περιπέτεια)356 of Attalus restored Philip’s confidence: τῇ δὲ περιπετείᾳ τῇ κατὰ τὸν Ἄτταλον ἐπαρθείς (16.6.9). The events that took place in the Roman Senate in the presence of the messengers sent by Ptolemais the Younger, i.e. the annulment of the covenant with Ptolemais the Elder, ‘elevated’ (ἐπαρθείς) the first one in spirit. As a result, he started recruiting mercenary troops: ὁ δὲ Πτολεμαῖος ἐπαρθεὶς εὐθέως ἐξενολόγει (31.20.5).

    The second meaning (negative) is mostly found in the descriptions of events as a result of which people become ‘haughty, complacent’, usually following a military victory. The Senate of Rome, on the news of the victory of the troops over Hannibal at Agrigentum, reacts with great joy and complacency, feeling their ideas were ‘raised’ (ἡ διάνοια): περιχαρεῖς γενόμενοι καὶ ταῖς διανοίαις ἐπαρθέντες (1.20.1). A similar reaction of haughtiness and ‘exaltation’ (ἡ διάνοια) can be found in the description of the Lacedaemonians’ fight with the Achaean: ἐπαρθέντες ταῖς διανοίαις ἐπὶ τῷ τῶν εὐζώνων προτερήματι (11.15.6). After losing a naval battle, the Carthaginians are afraid that the Romans ‘in the flush of their victory’ (τὸ προτέρημα) will immediately set out against Carthage: ἐκ τοῦ γεγονότος προτερήματος ἐπαρθέντας εὐθέως ποιήσεσθαι τὸν ἐπίπλουν ἐπ᾽ αὐτὴν τὴν Καρχηδόνα (1.29.4). A similar victory (τὸ προτέρημα) made Antioch ‘elated with success’ go to war against the barbarians: ὁ δὲ βασιλεὺς ἐπαρθεὶς τῷ γεγονότι προτερήματι […] (5.55.1). Achaeus, a relative of the Syrian king Seleucus, intended to keep power for his son, Antiochus after his death. However, ‘puffed up by his good fortune’ (τὸ εὐτυχήμα), i.e. the victory over Attalus and taking over the rest of the empire, he swerved from the course: ἐπαρθεὶς τοῖς εὐτυχήμασι παρὰ πόδας ἐξώκειλε (4.48.11). The consequence was that he accepted the diadem and declared himself king. In another fragment, Polybius first describes the intrigues in the Carthaginian camp and then shows how these events (τοῖς συμβεβηκόσιν357) elated and emboldened Mathos and Spendius: οἱ μὲν περὶ τὸν Μάθω καὶ Σπένδιον ἐπαρθέντες τοῖς συμβεβηκόσιν (1.82.11). In slightly different circumstances, but in a similar context this author presents the Tiberius campaign against Hannibal. The Roman chief, in the face of the attack of the Numidian horsemen, sends numerous troops in the hope that they would settle the affair, because his superiority in numbers (τὸ πλῆθος), and his success in the cavalry skirmish of the day before, had filled him with confidence (τῇ προτεραίᾳ358): ἐπαιρόμενος τῷ τε πλήθει τῶν ἀνδρῶν καὶ τῷ γεγονότι τῇ προτεραίᾳ (3.72.2).

    A separate group of texts are those in which Polybius uses the relative pronoun (ὅς, ἥ, ὅ) or the indicative pronoun (οὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο) in combination with this verb. However, it is always about the events that preceded the reaction of ‘becoming haughty’. Consul Caecilius, in the face of the confrontation with the Carthage chieftain, Hasdrubal, stops his troops inside the city, which (οἷς) makes the latter ‘supremely confident’: οἷς ἐπαιρόμενος Ἀσδρούβας (1.40.4). Xenoetas, the leader of the Syrian army, is assured by the visitors from the enemy Molon’s camp that if he would cross the Tigris river, Molon’s army would come to his side. Encouraged by this (τούτοις), he decides to cross the river: ἐπαρθεὶς τούτοις ὁ Ξενοίτας ἐπεβάλετο διαβαίνειν τὸν Τίγριν (5.46.8). As a result of an unsuccessful ploy of Garsyeris, the leader of the Syrian army, the victuals destined for Pednelissus (the city besieged by the Selgians) fell into the hands of the enemy. The Selgians, elated with this (οἷς) “essayed to storm the camp of Garsyeris as well as the city”: οἷς ἐπαρθέντες ἐνεχείρησαν οὐ μόνον τὴν πόλιν, ἀλλὰ καὶ τοὺς περὶ τὸν Γαρσύηριν πολιορκεῖν (5.73.8).

    As we have found out, this verb is assigned rich meanings. In a positive sense, although it refers to the feelings of man, these feelings are always related to the reality of earthly power or success. In a negative sense, in the context of the successes achieved by people, it points to the danger of overconfidence in somebody’s own strength.

    Summary

    The terminology with which Polybius describes the height usually, if not exclusively, refers to man and his actions. The verb ἐπαίρω in a metaphorical sense can mean both positive a spiritual elevation359 as well as the pejorative feeling of haughtiness because of some successes.360 Another interesting combination is the verb ὑψόω with its antonym ταπεινόω: “So true it is all the world over that a moment exalts and abases us” (5.26.12). This would mean that everyone could gain some dignity (ὑψόω) and then lose it (ταπεινόω).

    With regard to gods, that is, the religious sphere, the use of the verb ἀναβαίνω is worth noting although its religious meaning in the only text of Polybius is uncertain. It is not clear whether in 7.12.1 the ascent of Philip of Macedonia to the Messenian Acropolis is purely religious (to offer sacrifices to Zeus) or military (to take over the city).

    ***

    In a world full of various noteworthy events, two spaces reserved for two kinds of beings are of key importance. The first group are the gods who act from their place of dwelling, ‘from above’ (ἄνωθεν), sending thunder or rain from there (Xenophon, Memorabilia 4.3.14; Symposium 6.7). The place of their dwelling is specified by another adverb (ἄνω): the rain is sent from gods (implicitly ‘residing’) from ‘on high’ (Xenophon, Oeconomicus 20.11). By shooting arrows ‘upwards’ (ἄνω) people may provoke their reaction (Herodotus, The Histories 4.94.5; 5.105.2).

    In order for a human being to come into contact with a deity he must prepare a suitable place for it. Although historians are silent on this subject, we come to this conclusion reading about the ‘ascent’ (ἀναβαίνω) to the highest (τὰ ὑψηλότατα) places to offer the sacrifice (Herodotus, The Histories 1.131.2361). To take the oath, it was also necessary to ascend such a place, that is the altar (Thucydides, Peloponnesian War 5.50.1).

    The oracles were located on the highest (ὑψηλοτάτων) mountains (Herodotus, The Histories 7.111.2). Inquiries addressed to a god were answered (ἀναιρέω) by the gods themselves (Xenophon, Anabasis 3.1.6; 3.1.8) or through the oracle (in Delphi: Herodotus, The Histories 1.13.1; 1.13.2; 6.34.2; 6.52.5; 7.148.3; 9.33.2; Thucydides, Peloponnesian War 1.25.1; 1.118.3; 2.54.4; Xenophon, Memorabilia 1.3.1; The Apology of Socrates 1.14; in Dodona: Herodotus, The Histories 2.52.4; in Ethiopia: Herodotus, The Histories 2.139.3 or an unspecified oracle: Thucydides, Peloponnesian War 1.126.4; Xenophon, Anabasis 5.3.7; 7.6.44; The Polity of the Lacedaemonians 8.5) or by the soothsayers (Herodotus, The Histories 6.69.3).

    These actions taken by people to come into contact with the gods did not, however, guarantee that they would belong to the world of the gods; on the contrary, they still confirmed the belief that the dwelling of gods was closed to man. The effort of climbing the mountain peaks to make a sacrifice or consult an oracle was only to confirm the conviction of how distant this world was.

    The earth was the space of human existence. Living on it, people were constantly struggling on a religious and moral level. This belief is also present in the works of Greek historiographers. In the religious sphere there was a constant struggle for a return to life. This is expressed by using the verb ἀνίστημι. Herodotus denies it (οὐκέτι ἀνέστησαν) and creates one of the many synonyms of death: ‘not to rise’ or ‘to pass away’ (Herodotus, The Histories 1.31.6). As for the possibility of ‘resurrection’, that is, returning to life on one’s own, he expresses his serious doubts (Herodotus, The Histories 3.62.4). The possibility of returning to life is only conceivable through a deity that “raises from the dead, brings back to life”. The conviction that Asclepius was granted such power can be found in Xenophon’s On Hunting : “Asclepius won yet, greater preferment – to raise the dead (ἀνιστάναι τεθνεῶτας), to heal the sick; and for these things he has everlasting fame as a god among men” (Xenophon, On Hunting 1.6).

    In the moral sphere, everyone strives to erase (ἀναλαμβάνω) the guilt he has contracted in order to restore his former state (Herodotus, The Histories 7.231.1; cf. also 8.109.2). Different situations, especially military interventions, can elevate a person or even a whole nation (ἐπαίρω) (Polybius, The Histories 5.23.4; 16.6.9; 31.20.5). The fight is also significant, especially on the Olympic field, as it leads to the highest laurels (ἀναιρέω) (Herodotus, The Histories 6.36.1; 6.70.3; 6.103.2 [× 2]; 6.103.3; 6.103.4; 6.122.1; 6.125.4; 9.33.2; 9.33.3; 9.64.1); which is referred to as wearing a wreath (στεφανηφόρους; Herodotus, The Histories 5.102.3).

    It seems equally interesting to analyse those texts that emphasize the exaltation (ἐξαείρας […] ὑψοῦ; Herodotus, The Histories 9.79.1; ἐπαίρω; Xenophon, Memorabilia 3.6.2) by others of someone else’s exemplary behaviour. In opposition to this meaning we find the pejorative use of the same verb (ἐπαίρω), in the sense of ‘becoming haughty’ (Thucydides, Peloponnesian War 1.25.4; 1.120.5; 4.121.1; Xenophon, Cyropaedia 8.5.24; Polybius, The Histories 1.20.1; 1.29.4; 1.40.4; 1.82.11; 3.72.2; 4.48.11; 5.46.8; 5.55.1; 5.73.8; 11.15.6).

    In two texts we meet a characteristic antithesis: what is high will be humiliated and what is low will be exalted. The first of the historiographers who mentioned it was Xenophon. In one of his Socratic works we read: “the glory of the Athenians (ἡ τῶν Ἀθηναίων δόξα) to the Boeotians was humiliated (τεταπείνωται), and the pride of the Thebans to the Athenians was exalted (ἐπαίρω)” (Xenophon, Memorabilia 3.5.4). Another text is authored by Polybius: “a moment exalts (ὑψοῦσι) and abases us (ταπεινοῦσι) […]” (Polybius, The Histories 5.26.12). This antithesis returns once again in Greek literature362 and is closely related, at least in terms of terminology, to the biblical text in Ezek 21:31.363

    Summarising this research briefly, since it was already presented in more detail at the end of particular paragraphs, it should be mentioned that the Greek authors primarily focus on describing the gods’ place of dwelling. To this end, they make use of adverbs ὑψοῦ, ὑψόθεν and ἄνω. Zeus is the highest (ὕψιστος) ruler of Mount Olympus, the world of gods. Man can climb (ἀναβαίνω) Olympus, the dwelling of the gods. Man can also enter the space of worship and prayer, and even into heaven itself. Before this happens, however, he has to build (ἀνίστημι) an altar and raise the offering (ἀναιρέω) in a sacrificial gesture or lift (ἐπαίρω) the gift upwards (ἄνω). Man can achieve the otherworldly (ἄνω) existence of the soul and the view from above (ἄνωθεν) through philosophy. He can also come into contact with the deities thanks to the oracle through which the deities respond (ἀναιρέω).

    Ancient authors knew the idea of resurrection although they consistently denied the possibility of resurrection of someone (ἀνίστημι) or resurrection (ἡ ἀνάστασις) as such. It was the domain of the gods. This power was attributed to Heracles (Euripides, Alcestis 126; 1008nn; Heracles 719) and Asclepius (Xenophon, On Hunting 1.6). References to this were also made using the adverb ἄνω and the verb ἀναλαμβάνω.

    Literature also repeats the motif of humiliation and exaltation, although not yet in the same form as in the Old Testament (cf. e.g. Ezek 21:31). In this context, the Greek used the terms ὑψηλός, ἄνω, and the pairs ἐπαίρω/ταπεινόω and ὑψόω/ταπεινόω.

    In the negative sense (as ‘haughtiness’ or ‘excessive pride’), Greek authors prefer such concepts as τὸ ὕψος, ὑψοῦ, ὑψηλός, ἄνω and ἐπαίρω.

    1 Cf. W. Appel, Poezja epicka od Anymacha do Nonnosa [Epic Poetry from Anymach to Nonnus ], [in:] Literatura Grecji starożytnej [Literature of Ancient Greece], ed. H. Podbielski, vol. 1, Lublin 2005, 321.

    2 In this search, we do not take into account the literature created at the same time St Paul’s epistles (1st century AD), as well as that which was created several years before his activity (1st century BC). The concepts used in literature need a certain, usually longer time to develop their proper range of meaning. Then they must become widely used, but it can never be achieved in a short time. Hence this choice of those authors and works which, in this opinion, had a significant impact on the development of the range of meaning of the concepts with which the category of height and exaltation is described.

    3 Cf. the discussion on this subject presented by Z. Abramowiczówna, Homer , [in:] Encyklopedia Katolicka, vol. 6, ed. J. Walkusz, Lublin 1993, col. 1166–1168.

    4 This study is based on the edition of all Homer’s works in: Homeri carmina et cycli epici reliquiae. Graece et latine cum indice noninum et rerum, ed. A. Firmin-Didot, Parisiis 1881. The Polish translations of Iliad we consulted include: Homer, Iliada, Polish transl. F.K. Dmochowski, preface. and com. T. Sinko, Wrocław–Warszawa–Kraków 1966; Homer, Iliada , Polish transl. K. Jeżewska, Warszawa 1999.

    5 The original text of The Odyssey as above. The comparative Polish translations are Homer, Odyseja, Polish transl. L. Siemieński, introduction and explanation T. Sinko, Wrocław–Warszawa–Kraków 1965; Homer, Odyseja (trans. L. Siemieński, ed. Z. Kubiak), Warszawa 1990.

    6 Cf. Homer, Iliada , Polish transl. F.K. Dmochowski, preface. and com. T. Sinko, XIX–XXI.

    7 Cf. Z. Abramowiczówna, Homer , 1167.

    8 A frog (ὁ βάτραχος) raising (ὑψώας) its pale body out of pale water (The Battle of Frogs and Mice 81).

    9 The Iliad 2.395; 3.384; 4.437; 5.560; 6.503; 7.60; 12.282; 12.131; 12.386; 12.388; 12.455; 14.293; 16.213; 16.297; 16.397; 16.512; 16.429; 16.702; 18.275; 20.146; 21.171; 21.540; 22.440; 23.713; 24.281; 24.449; The Odyssey 1.126; 1.330; 1.426; 3.402; 3.407; 4.304; 6.58; 6.263; 7.45; 7.131; 7.346; 8.422; 9.113; 9.183; 9.185; 9.192; 9.304; 10.104; 11.278; 14.6; 16.285; 17.110; 18.32; 21.5; 21.33; 21.51; 22.176; Hymn to Apollo (1).23; 145; Hymn to Aphrodite (3).161; 267; Hymn to Artemis (27).7; Hymn to Hestia and Hermes (29).1. Once, it also serves as the modifier to a personal name: ὑψηλοὺς Ἐρυθίνοθς (Iliad 2.855). It is probably the Erithini land; see the translation of Kazimiera Jeżewska in: Homer, Iliada (Polish trans. K. Jeżewska), p. 62.

    10 Τύμβον εὑρον θ’ ὑψηλόν τε τιθήμεναι (Iliad 23.247); the probable meaning is: “to raise up […] a barrow”.

    11 As it is not difficult to see Homer most often refers to the adjective under investigation to inanimate things (τὸ ὄρος, ὁ δόμος, το τεῖχος, etc.). Only three times does he describe plant sizes in this way: ἡ ἐλάτη – fir (Iliad 5.560), ἡ φηγός – he fegosoak (Iliad 7.60) and ἡ ἴδη – tree (Iliad 14.293).

    12 Cf. e.g. the translation of Lucjan Siemieński in: Homer, Odyseja, Polish trans. L. Siemieński, ed. Z. Kubiak, Warszawa 1990, p. 45.

    13 Cf. the meaning of the term ἡ πύλη in: Słownik grecko-polski [Greek-Polish Dictionary], ed. Z. Abramowiczówna, vol. 3, Warszawa 1962, p. 766.

    14 On the syntactic function of the adverb, see K. Pisarkowa, Przysłówka składnia [The syntax of the adverb], [in:] Encyklopedia wiedzy o języku polskim [Encyclopedia of the Polish language], ed. S. Urbańczyk, Wrocław–Warszawa–Kraków–Gdańsk 1978, p. 273; see also D. Podlawska, I. Płóciennik, Leksykon nauki o języku [Lexicon of linguistics], Bielsko-Biała 2002, p. 99.

    15 The ship was pulled out (ἐρύω) high to dry ground (Iliad 1.486; Hymn to Apollo (1).507). The ship was anchored (ὁρμίζω) “high”. (Odyssey 4.785; 8.55). The mast was to be hoisted (πήγνυμι) high (Odyssey 5.164). The horse has (ἔχω) its neck (raised) high (Iliad 6.509; 15.266). Two lions have (ἔχω) prey (raised) high in their mouths (Iliad 13.200). The two Ajaxes have (ἔχω) the dead Imbrius (raised) high, aloft (Iliad 13.201).

    16 In one group of texts we encounter a simple meaning, which we can also call literal, expressing the action of people: the dew fell (ἧκεν) from above (Iliad 11.53); Ajax raised (ἄγ’) a boulder high (Iliad 12.383); Hera was bound and fixed (ἐκρέμω) on high (Iliad 15.18); water gushed (ῥέεν) from the rock, from high (Odyssey 17.210).

    17 In Homer’s case, this verb was referred to animals and horses only once.

    18 For example Demeter did not want to lift (ἀνελέσθαι) her dear son from the floor (Hymn to Demeter (5).283). Achilles asked Patroclus why he was crying like a little girl who wanted to be taken (ἀνέληται) in the arms (Iliad 16.8). Antinous wants to raise (ἀναιρήσεσθαι) a cup of wine to his mouth (Odyssey 22.9). Penelope’s prayer to Artemis is in a similar tone: “Lift (ἀνέλοντο) the wind as on Pandareus’ daughter […]” (Odyssey 20.66).

    19 Thus Agamemnon will not be able to carry the loot taken (τῶν […] ἀνελὼν) by Achilles against his will (Iliad 1.301). Meriones immediately took (ἀνείλετο) a spear from the tent (Iliad 13.296). Antilochus calls on Achilles to appoint a reward to Meriones from the loot taken (τῶν […] ἀναλὼν) by him, not to take away his reward (Iliad 23.551). A beggar can leave the Odysseus’ court taking everything he collected (ἀναλόντα) (Odyssey 18.16). Antinous assured Eurymachus that the axes would not be taken (ἀναιρήσεσθαι) (Odyssey 21.261). In a similar sense, Eurymachus told Odysseus: “Wouldn’t it be good to take (ἀνελοίμην) you for a farmhand?” (Odyssey 18.357).

    20 This action is highlighted in the following texts: Iliad 1.58, 1.68, 1.101, 1.191, 1.305, 1.387, 1.533, 2.76, 2.398, 2.694, 7.94, 7.123, 7.161, 7.354, 7.365, 9.52, 9.195, 14.336, 18.410, 19.55, 19.77, 19.175, 19.269, 23.491, 23.542, 23.566, 23.709, 23.734, 23.886, 24.11, 24.515, 24.597, Odyssey 2.224, 3.341, 4.343, 4.674, 4.776, 5.195, 6.7, 7.163, 7.170, 8.258, 10.215, 12.170, 12.195, 12.439, 14.319, 16.358, 16.378, 16.407, 17.134, 17.177, 18.47, 18.157, 19.357, 20.380, 21.139, 21.144, 21.166, 21.243, 21.392, 23.164. The only place where the act of lifting is not related to a person but to an object is Iliad 23.848, where: “The great cry of strong Polypoetes’ friends spread around […]”

    21 Achaean must choose (ἀναστήσουσιν) to fight another warrior in place of Menelaus (Iliad 7.116). Achilles, according to the will of Zeus, is to incite his friend the fight (ἀνστήσει), Patroclus (Iliad 15.64). The goddess Hera achieved her goal by inciting (ἀνστήσας) Achilles (Iliad 18.358) to fight. Clytomedes, who challenged Nestor to fight (ἀνέστη), was defeated by him (Iliad 23.635). To fight in the games there is (ἀνίτατο) Euryjal (Iliad 23.677). Melanio’s service warns Odysseus not to challenge (ἀναστῇ) him to a hand fight (Odyssey 18.334).

    22 Cf. K. Narecki, Hezjod , [in:] Encyklopedia Katolicka, ed. J. Walkusz, vol. 6, Lublin 1993, col. 830–831.

    23 This study is based on the publication of all the works of Hezjod in: Hesiodi carmina. Graece et latine cum indicibus noninum et rerum, ed. F.S. Lehrs, Parisiis 1878. The Polish translation consulted: Hezjod, Narodziny bogów (Teogonia). Prace i dni. Tarcza [Birth of the Gods (Theogony ). Works and Days. Shield ] (Polish transl. J. Łanowski, Warszawa 1999.

    24 Cf. T. Sinko, Zarys historii literatury greckiej [An Outline of the History of Greek Literature], vol. 1, Warszawa 1959, p. 180–182.

    25 Birth of the Gods 787; Shield 374; 406; 440 .

    26 Birth of the Gods 632; it is the name of a mountain in Thessaly: Ὄθρυς; cf. Mała encyklopedia kultury antycznej [Pocket Encyclopedia of Ancient Culture], ed. Z. Piszczek, Warszawa 1988, 554.

    27 The sound would be heard high (ἐπακουσῇς ὑψόθεν; Works and Days 449); Uranus (is) falling from high (δ’ ὑψόθεν ἐξεριπόντος; Birth of the Gods 704); the fog (literally: “the air in which wheat is ripening” – ἀὴρ πυροφόρος) is mixed high (ὑψοῦ […] ἀρθείς; Works and Days 550).

    28 Polish trans.: “Wstawaj, nim ranek zaświta, by później nie brakło ci chleba [lit. “Get up before dawn, so that you do not lack bread later”].

    29 Cf. T. Sinko, Zarys historii literatury greckiej [An Outline of the History of Greek Literature], vol. 2, p. 173–174.

    30 Cf. T. Rabenda, Apollonios Rhodios, [in:] Słownik pisarzy antycznych [Dictionary of Ancient Writers], ed. A. Świderkówna, Warszawa 1990, p. 75–76.

    31 This study is based on the Greek edition of Argonautica : Apollonii Rhodii Argonautica , ed. F.S. Lehrs, Parisiis 1878.

    32 Cf. 4.719.

    33 Cf. 1.346.

    34 Cf. 1.1349; 2.689; 4.533.

    35 Cf. 1.1105; 2.16; 2.884; 3.294; 3.752; 4.671.

    36 Cf. 1.666.

    37 Cf. 1.1159.

    38 Cf. 3.1386.

    39 Though, as we have already shown above, the gods also enter other places (see Iliad 14.287; 16.184).

    40 S. Stabryła, Historia literatury starożytnej Grecji i Rzymu. Zarys [History of Ancient Greek and Roman Literature. Outline], Wrocław–Warszawa–Kraków 2002, p. 42.

    41 The last representative of this species in the Greek world is Proclus, living in the 5th century AD; cf. J. Danielewicz, Epigramat – poezja liryczna. Hymny orfickie – hymny Proklosa [Epigram – lyrical poetry. Orphic hymns – hymns of Proclus], [in:] Literatura Grecji starożytnej [Literature of Ancient Greece] ed. H. Podbielski, vol. 1, Lublin 2005, p. 626–627.

    42 Cf. T. Sinko, Zarys historii literatury greckiej [An Outline of the History of Greek Literature], vol. 1, p. 257–261.

    43 This study is based on two editions of Pindar’s works: Pindari opera quae supersunt, ed. A. Boeckhius, Lipsiae 1811; Pindari carmina cum fragmentis, ed. B. Snell, Lipsiae 1953. The Polish edition consulted is: Pindar, Wybór poezji, ed. A. Szastyńska-Siemion, Wrocław 2005.

    44 In P.9.61 Hermes is lifted up from his loving mother.

    45 The terms include: ὑψόθεν, ἀναβαίνω, ἀνίστημι, ἄνω.

    46 Cf. J. Smolarczyk-Rostropowicz, Kallimachos, [in:] Słownik pisarzy antycznych [Dictionary of Ancient Writers], ed. A. Świderkówna, Warszawa 1990, p. 266.

    47 Cf. K. Narecki, Kallimach z Cyreny, [in:] Encyklopedia Katolicka, vol. 8, ed. A. Szostek, B. Migut, E. Gigilewicz et al., Lublin 2000, col. 409; cf. also S. Stabryła, Historia literatury starożytnej Grecji i Rzymu. Zarys [History of Ancient Greek and Roman Literature], Wrocław–Warszawa–Kraków 2002, p. 122.

    48 Cf. J. Danielewicz, Kallimach i jego twórczość poetycka [Callimachus and his poetic works], [in:] Literatura Grecji starożytnej [Literature of Ancient Greece], ed. H. Podbielski, vol. 1, Lublin 2005, p. 524.

    49 Cf. J. Smolarczyk-Rostropowicz, Kallimachos, p. 266–267; cf. also J. Danielewicz, Kallimach i jego twórczość poetycka [Callimachus and his poetic works], p. 540. 549–550.

    50 This study is based on the edition of the original works of Callimachus: Callimachus , vol. 1: Fragmenta, vol. 2: Hymni et Epigrammata, ed. R. Pfeiffer, Oxonii 1949–1953.

    51 Cf. hymn To Delos (4).63.

    52 Cf. Epigram 23.2.

    53 Cf. hymn To Delos (4).157.

    54 Cf. hymn To Demeter (6).4.

    55 Cf. hymn To Artemis (3).128.

    56 Cf. hymns: To Artemis (3).199 and To Delos (4).173.

    57 Cf. hymn To Delos (4).312.

    58 Cf. hymn To Apollo (2).64.

    59 Cf. hymn To Zeus (1).24

    60 Cf. J. Ławińska-Tyszkowska, Teokryt i poeci bukoliczni [Theocrite and Bucolic Poets], [in:] Literatura Grecji starożytnej [Literature of Ancient Greece], vol. 1: Epika – liryka – dramat [Epic – Lyric – Drama], ed. H. Podbielski, Lublin 2005, p. 559.

    61 Cf. J. Ławińska-Tyszkowska, Theokritos, [in:] Słownik pisarzy antycznych [Dictionary of Ancient Writers], ed. A. Świderkówna, Warszawa 1990, p. 454–455.

    62 Cf. J. Ławińska-Tyszkowska, Teokryt i poeci bukoliczni [Theocritus and Bucolic Poets], p. 559–561.

    63 In addition to the abovementioned studies by J. Ławińska-Tyszkowska, the topic was studied by: S. Stabryła, Historia literatury starożytnej Grecji i Rzymu. Zarys [History of Ancient Greek and Roman Literature], Wrocław–Warszawa–Kraków 2002, p. 131–136.

    64 Idylls VIII and IX do not have their own titles, and from Idyll VI they were called Pastoral Songs II and III; cf. J. Ławińska-Tyszkowska, Teokryt i poeci bukoliczni [Theocritus and Bucolic Poets], p. 568.

    65 This research is based on the original edition of Theocritus’ works: Bucolicorum Graecorum Theocriti Bionis reliquie, accedentibus incertorum idyllis, ed. H.L. Ahrens, Lipsiae 1928; English text in the translation of C.S. Calverley is avalaible: http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11533/11533-h/11533-h.htm [accessed: 20.03.2021].

    66 Cf. Idyll XI: The Giant’s Wooing 18; Idyll XXII: Hymn to Dioscur 40.

    67 Cf. Idyll I: Thyrsis, a Song 8; Idyll XVII: The Praise of Ptolemy 71; Idyll XXV: Heracles the Lion Slayer 259.

    68 Cf. Epigram 14.2.

    69 Cf. Idyll 22: Hymn to Dioscur 180.

    70 Cf. Epigram 24.110; Idyll XV: The Festival of Adonis 53; Idyll XXIV: The Infant Heracles 36; 50; Idyll XXV: Heracles the Lion Slayer 149.

    71 Cf. Idyll I: Thyrsis, a Song 152.

    72 Cf. Idyll X: The Two Workmen 50; Idyll XXI: Fishermen 1; 20.

    73 Cf. Idyll XV: The Festival of Adonis 125.

    74 Cf. Idyll VIII: Pastorals II, 19; 22.

    75 Cf. Idyll XV: The Festival of Adonis 91.

    76 Cf. Idyll XXII: Hymn to Dioscur 164.

    77 In the classical period, the works of Sophocles, Ichneutae (Tracking Satyrs) and Euripides, Cyclops , would be representatives of this kind.

    78 Cf. S. Stabryła, Historia literatury starożytnej Grecji i Rzymu. Zarys [History of Literature of Ancient Greece and Rome. Outline], Wrocław–Warszawa–Kraków 2002, p. 60–62.

    79 Cf. R.R. Chodkowski, Początki tragedii greckiej [Beginnings of the Greek Tragedy] [in:] Literatura starożytnej Grecji [Literature of Ancient Greece], ed. H. Podbielski, vol. 1: Epika – liryka – dramat [Epic – lyric – drama], Lublin 2005, p. 629.

    80 Cf. S. Stabryła, Historia literatury starożytnej Grecji i Rzymu. Zarys [History of Literature of Ancient Greece and Rome], p. 77.

    81 Cf. Z. Kubiak, Literatura Greków i Rzymian [Literature of Greeks and Romans], Warszawa 2003, p. 164–165.

    82 Cf. J. Łanowski, Literatura starogrecka [Old Greek Literature], [in:] Dzieje literatur europejskich [History of European Literature], ed. W. Floryan, Warszawa 1979, p. 52–53.

    83 In this study we use the publication with seven tragedies of Aeschylus: Aeschyli tragoediae septem et perditarum fragmenta, ed. E.A.I. Ahrens, [in:] Aeschyli et Sophoclis tragoediae et fragment. Graece et latine cum indicibus, Parisiis 1842. The Polish translations consulted are: Przekłady Jana Kasprowicza [Translations by Jan Kasprowicz ], vol. 1–4, ed. W. Meisels, Kraków 1931; Aeschylus, Prometeusz skowany. Persowie [Prometheus Bound. Persians ], Polish transl. J. Kasprowicz, Wrocław 2005.

    84 Cf. Słownik grecko-polski [Greek-Polish Dictionary], ed. Z. Abramowiczówna, vol. 1, Warszawa 1958, p. 328.

    85 A separate issue is the metaphorical nature of the whole statement, in which this “fence” means the intrigues with which Agamemnon is surrounded.

    86 In the latter case a separate issue is the metaphoricity of the whole utterance; more extensively about it in: T. Sinko, Zarys historii literatury greckiej [An Outline of the History of Greek Literature], vol. 1, p. 376.

    87 The adjective agrees with the noun it specifies as far as the genre, number and case is concerned.

    88 Cf. meaning 12a ἄνω in: Słownik grecko-polski [Greek-Polish Dictionary], ed. Z. Abramowiczówna, vol. 1, p. 230.

    89 Cf. footnote to the section in question: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0008:line=831 [accessed: 20.03.2021].

    90 Cf. R.R. Chodkowski, Ajschylos [Aeschylus ], [in:] Literatura starożytnej Grecji [Literature of Ancient Greece], ed. H. Podbielski, vol. 1: Epika – liryka – dramat [Epic – lyric – drama], Lublin 2005, p. 678–679.

    91 Cf. T. Sinko, Zarys historii literatury greckiej [An Outline of the History of Greek Literature], vol. 1, p. 401–403.

    92 This study is based on the edition of Sophocles’ works: Sophoclis tragoediae septem est perditum fragmenta, ed. L. Benloew, E.A.I Ahrens, [in:] Aeschyli et Sophoclis tragoediae et fragmenta. Graece et latine cum indicibus, Parisiis 1842. The consulted Polish edition of some of Sophocles’ tragedies is: Sophocles, Antygona. Król Edyp. Elektra [Antigone. Oedipus Tyrannus. Electra ], Wrocław 2004. Particular works were translated by: Kazimierz Morawski (Antigone, Electra ) and S. Srebrny (Oedipus Tyrannus ).

    93 Of course, a separate issue is the metaphor of the whole speech, but the phrase ὑψηλόν […] βάθρον does not have that meaning.

    94 For more on “Zeus Most High” see A.D. Nock, The Gild of Zeus Hypsistos, “Harvard Theological Review” 29 (1936), p. 39–88. The abbreviated version of this article was published a few decades later in: A.D. Nock, The Gild of Zeus Hypsistos, [in:] Essays on religion and the Ancient World, ed. Z. Stewart, vol. 1, Oxford 1972, p. 414–443.

    95 Such a meaning of this verb is also given by dictionaries: see e.g. Słownik grecko-polski [Greek-Polish Dictionary], ed. Z. Abramowiczówna, vol. 1, p. 147.

    96 This verb occurs at the end of stich 138 and at the beginning of stich 139.

    97 Cf. Słownik grecko-polski [Greek-Polish Dictionar], ed. Z. Abramowiczówna, vol. 1, ἄνω II.2, p. 230.

    98 Cf. T. Sinko, Zarys historii literatury greckiej [An Outline of the History of Greek Literature], vol. 1, p. 506–508.

    99 Cf. D. Łowicka, Euripides , [in:] Słownik pisarzy antycznych [Dictionary of Ancient Writers], ed. A. Świderkówna, Warszawa 1990, p. 192–195. Cf. also the titles of all preserved works by Euripides.

    100 In this study we use the edition of Euripides’ tragedy: Euripidis Tragoediae, ed. A. Nauck, vol. 1–2, Lipsiae 1887. The Polish consulted translation: Przekłady Jana Kasprowicza [Translations by Jan Kasprowicz ]. vol. 5–15, ed. W. Meisels, Kraków 1931.

    101 As for the meaning of the idiomatic expressions we are discussing, see Słownik polsko-grecki [Greek-Polish Dictionary], ed. Z. Abramowiczówna, vol. 4, Warszawa 1965, slogan: ὑψηλός, p. 484.

    102 This is part of the same scene (Bacchae 1043–1152) that we discussed earlier in connection with the noun τὸ ὕψος.

    103 Cf. the meaning of τὸ βάθρον [in:] Słownik grecko-polski [Greek-Polish Dictionary], ed. Z. Abramowiczówna, vol. 1, p. 407.

    104 Similar meaning can be found in the use of ἀνίτημι in Heracles 78, where the ‘raising of one’s legs’ is mentioned, i.e., running out to meet one’s returning father.

    105 Quote after LXX.

    106 Rhesus 532 (2 times), 541, 543, 563, 572, 644.

    107 Cf. B. Butrymowicz, Rhesus , [in:] Przekłady Jana Kasprowicza [Translations by Jan Kasprowicz ], vol. 15, ed. W. Meisels, Kraków 1931, p. 144; cf. also J. Czerwińska, Eurypides i jego twórczość dramatyczna oraz mniejsi tragediopisarze [Eurypides and his dramatic works and minor tragedy playwrights], [in:] Literatura Grecji starożytnej [Literature of Ancient Greece], vol. 1: Epika – liryka – dramat [Epic – lyric – drama], ed. H. Podbielski, Lublin 2005, p. 775. The same applies to the occurrence of ἐπαίρω (Rhesus 189, 789).

    108 Cf. J. Ławińska-Tyszkowska, Aristophanes, [in:] Słownik pisarzy antycznych [Dictionary of Ancient Writers], ed. A. Świderkówna, Warszawa 1990, p. 89–92.

    109 For a detailed discussion of all preserved works by Aristophanes and their titles see T. Sinko, Zarys historii literatury greckiej [An Outline of the History of Greek Literature], vol. 1, p. 603–635.

    110 This study is based on the original text of Aristophanes’ works: Aristophanis Comoediae, ed. F.W. Hall, W.M. Geldart, vol. 1–2, Oxford University Press; Oxford 1906–1922. Consulted Polish translations are: Aristophanes, Żaby [Frogs ], Polish transl. A. Sandauer, Warszawa 1956; Aristophanes, Komedie. Acharniacy, Rycerze, Chmury, Bojomira (Lysistrate) [Comedies. The Acharnians, The Knights, The Clouds, Lysistrata ], Polish transl. S. Srebrny, Warszawa 1962; Aristophanes, Ptaki [The Birds ], Polish transl. A. Sandauer, Warszawa 1965; Aristophanes, Komedie. Acharnejczycy, Rycerze, Chmury, Żaby [Comedies. The Acharnians, The Knights, The Clouds, The Frogs ], Polish transl. J. Ławińska-Tyszkowska, Wrocław 1991; Aristophanes, Komedie [Comedies], vol. 1: Acharnejczycy, Rycerze, Chmury, Osy, Pokój [The Acharnians, The Knights, The Clouds, The Wasps, Peace ], Polish transl. J. Ławińska-Tyszkowska, Warszawa 2001; Aristophanes, Komedie [Comedies], vol. 2: Ptaki, Lysistrata, Thesmoforie, Żaby, Sejm kobiet, Plutos [The Birds, Lysistrata, Thesmophoriazusae, The Frogs, Ecclesiazusae, Plutus ], Polish transl. J. Ławińska-Tyszkowska, Warszawa 2003; Aristophanes, Komedie. Ptaki, Lysistrata, Sejm kobiet, Plutos [Comedies. The Birds, Lysistrata, Ecclesiazusae, Plutus ], Polish transl. J. Ławińska-Tyszkowska, Wrocław 2005; English translations are available at: https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/ [accessed: 20.03.2021].

    111 Cf. Z. Abramowiczówna, Aristophanes , [in:] Encyklopedia Katolicka [Catholic Encyclopedia], vol. 1, ed. F. Gryglewicz, R. Łukaszczyk, Z. Sułowski, Lublin 1985, p. 961–962.

    112 Polish translation by J. Ławińska-Tyszkowska, in: Aristophanes, Komedie [Comedies], vol. 1, p. 186.

    113 In this last passage this adverb was used as a synonym ἄνω.

    114 Polish translation by J. Ławińska-Tyszkowska, in: Aristophanes, Komedie [Comedies], vol. 1, p. 379.

    115 Polish translation by J. Ławińska-Tyszkowska, in: Aristophanes, Komedie[Comedies], vol. 2, p. 84.

    116 It eventually happened, cf. Aeschylus, The Persian, 681.

    117 We could describe extensively the speeches made, for example, by Nestor, Agamemnon, Achilles or Odysseus in Homer’s poems.

    118 Cf. R. Turasiewicz, Mówcy Attyccy [Attic Orators], [in:] Literatura starożytnej Grecji [Literature of Ancient Greece], ed. H. Podbielski, vol. 2: Proza historyczna, krasomówstwo, filozofia i nauka, literatura chrześcijańska [Historical Prose, Oratory, Philosophy and Science, Christian Literature], p. 165–167.

    119 Two epideictic addresses (Defense of Palamedes and Encomium of Helen), two fragments of a rhetorical textbook and fractions of other speeches have only survived; cf. S. Stabryła, Historia literatury starożytnej Grecji i Rzymu. Zarys [History of Ancient Greek and Roman Literature. An Outline], Wrocław–Warszawa–Kraków 2002, p. 89–90.

    120 Cf. W. Siwakowska, Lysias , [in:] Słownik pisarzy antycznych[Dictionary of Ancient Writers], ed. A. Świderkówna, Warszawa 1990, p. 302–303.

    121 Cf. R. Turasiewicz, Mówcy Attyccy [Attic Orators], op. cit., p. 178–181.

    122 The Roman number means the consecutive number of a speech in Corpusculum. In further quotations we will use abbreviations and numbers without giving the full title of the speech.

    123 This study is based on the edition of the original text of Lysias’ speeches: Lysiae Orationes, ed. T. Thalheim, Lipsiae 1913. The consulted Polish translation is: Lizjasz, Mowy [Speeches], Polish transl. R. Turasiewicz, Kraków 1998; English translation after: Lysias , English transl. W.R.M. Lamb, London 1930.

    124 Staying on the altar of god ensured the suppliant’s inviolability; cf. Lizjasz, Mowy [Speeches] (Polish transl. R. Turasiewicz), footnote 12, 108.

    125 This fragment refers to the function of the altar as an asylum for the criminal (cf. Exod 21:14). We read about this law in the Old Testament in the story of Adonijah (1 Kings 1:50–53), and about its violation in the story of Joab (1 Kings 2:28–34).

    126 This is indicated further in the oration on the actions of the Athenians against the Argives and the inhabitants of Thebes: “they risked combat with one of the parties in the interest of both, that on the one side they should cease from grossly outraging the gods by their trespass against the dead, and that on the other they should not hasten away to their own land frustrated of an ancestral honour, cut off from Hellenic custom, and disappointed in a common hope” (II.9).

    127 Cf. R. Turasiewicz, Mówcy Attyccy [Atticus Speakers], p. 185.

    128 Cf. S. Kalinkowski, Isokrates, [in:] Słownik pisarzy antycznych [Dictionary of Ancient Writers], ed. A. Świderkówna, Warszawa 1990, p. 257.

    129 There are twenty-one speeches and nine letters among them.

    130 The Roman numeral before the name of the speech means its consecutive number. The order of the orations is, as far as possible, chronological.

    131 For a more detailed discussion of the individual speeches, see R. Turasiewicz, Mówcy Attyccy [Attic Orators], p. 185–193. This study is based on the edition of Isocrates’ speeches in the original language: Isocratis orationes editio altera curante Friderico Blass , B.G. Teubner; Lipsiae 1879; English text available at: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Isoc.%204.38&lang=original [accessed: 20.03.2021].

    132 Cf. S. Kalinkowski, Isokrates, 258.

    133 The number of a particular oration is provided before each title.

    134 Cf. R. Turasiewicz, Mówcy Attyccy [Attic Orators], p. 193.

    135 Cf. S. Kalinkowski, Isaios, [in:] Słownik pisarzy antycznych [Dictionary of Ancient Writers], ed. A. Świderkówna, Warszawa 1990, p. 255.

    136 To make the list complete, the following titles should be added: III. On the Estate of Pyrrhus, VIII. On the Estate of Ciron, XII. On Behalf of Euphiletus. This study is based on the edition of Isaeus’ orations: Isaei Orationes cum deperditoru fragmentis, ed. T. Thalheim, Lipsiae 1903; the English translations are based on: Isaeus. Isaeus with an English translation by Edward Seymour Forster, London 1962; available at: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0142 [accessed: 20.03.2021].

    137 For the annulment of the will, see I. About the inheritance of Kleonymos 14.18.21; VI. For the inheritance of Philoctemon 30.31. For the cancellation of another document see I. About the inheritance of Kleonymos 25.42; VI. About the fall of Philoctemon 32; X. To Xenainetos about Aristarch’s inheritance [hypothesis].

    138 Cf. the meaning of ἀναιρέω in: Słownik grecko-polski [Greek-Polish Dictionary], ed. Z. Abramowi­czówna, vol. 1, p. 142.

    139 The verb ἀναιρέω used by Isaeus would correspond to the noun ἐξαλείφω used by Paul; and the noun ἡ διαθήκη to the notion of Paul τὸ χειρόγραφον.

    140 This study is based on the edition of Aeschines’ orations: Aeschinis orations, ed. F. Blass, Bibliotheca Teubneriana; Lipsiae 1908; the English translation was based on: Aeschines , English transl. C.D. Adams, London 1919; available at: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0002%3Aspeech%3D1 [accessed: 20.03.2021].

    141 Cf. W. Siwakowska, Aischines, [in:] Słownik pisarzy antycznych [Dictionary of Ancient Writers], ed. A. Świderkówna, Warszawa 1990, p. 46–47.

    142 Cf. R. Turasiewicz, Mówcy Attyccy [Attic Orators], p. 197.

    143 Cf. I. Against Timarchus 69.80.132.193 ; II. On the Embassy 63.143; III. Against Ctesiphon 152.241 .

    144 Participium perfecti medii, accusativus masculinum pluralis from ἐπαίρω.

    145 Cf. Słownik polsko-grecki [Greek-Polish Dictionary], ed. Z. Abramowiczówna), vol. 2, Warszawa 1960, p. 193.

    146 The Greek talent was an Athenian monetary unit of 26,2 kilograms in silver; cf. Demostenes, Wybór mów [Selected Orations], Polish transl. R. Turasiewicz, Wrocław 2005, p. 5.

    147 Cf. Demostenes, Wybór mów [Selected Orations], Polish transl. R. Turasiewicz, p. XXIX.

    148 It is obviously The Peloponnesian War .

    149 Cf. R. Turasiewicz, Mówcy Attyccy [Attic Orators], p. 200.

    150 In brackets, there are consecutive numbers of Demosthenes’ speeches. The speeches are numbered in a different way than in the case of previous orators to make it easier for the reader. Roman numerals, especially the greater ones, can be difficult to read.

    151 Cf. W. Siwakowska, Demostenes, [in:] Słownik pisarzy antycznych [Dictionary of Ancient Writers], ed. A. Świderkówna, Warszawa 1990, p. 157–159.

    152 This study is based on the edition of Demosthenes’ speeches: Demosthenis opera recensuit graece et latine cum indicibus, ed. J.T. Voemelius, Parisiis 1843. Polish translation (selected orations) was consulted: Demostenes, Wybór mów [Selected Orations], Polish transl. R. Turasiewicz, Wrocław 2005; English translation: Demosthenes , transl. C.A. Vince and J.H. Vince, London 1926; available at: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper [accessed: 20.03.2021].

    153 The third speech against Philip has survived to these times in two versions, hence they are marked as IIIa and IIIb; cf. W. Siwakowska, Demostenes, op. cit., p. 160.

    154 Cf. R. Turasiewicz, Mówcy Attyccy [Attic Orators], p. 200.

    155 However, once in the positive (On the Embassy (19).255) and once in the comparative degree (Against Callicles (55).22).

    156 Introduction 6.1; 14.1; 56.1; On the Crown (18).66; 209; On the Embassy (19).289; 290 (× 2); 291; Against Meidias (21).205; Against Androtion (22).38; Against Aristogeiton I (25).9; 20; Against Ontenor I (30).32; Against Timotheus (49).20; Against Theocrines (58).42; 70; Against Neaera (59).16; 80.

    157 Against Meidias (21).163; Against Polycles (50).47; 48; 52.

    158 Against Callipus (52).14.

    159 Against Aristocrates (23).81; Against Ontenor II (31).4 (× 2); Against Phormio (34).31; Against Pantaenetus (37).41; Against Macartatus (43).57 (× 2); 58; Against Stephanos I (45).53; Against the Olympiodorus (48).46; Against Polycles (50).17; Against Callipus (52).14; Against Nicostratus (53).21; Against Theocrines (58).34; Funeral Oration (60).23.

    160 Against Leptines (20).134; Against Aristocrates (23).27; 148; Against Stephanos I (45).21; Against Dionysodorus (56).15; Against Eubulides (57).17; Against Theocrines (58).32; 34.

    161 Introduction 12.2; Letter 3.8; Olynthiac III (3).35; Philip’s Letter (12).4; On the Crown (18).63; 294; On the Embassy (19).2; 127; 342 (× 2); Against Leptines (20).143; 155; Against Meidias (21).105; Against Aristocrates (23).62; 175; 218; Against Timocrates (24).2; 32; 84; 101; Against Aristogeiton I (25).90; Against Aphobus I (27).61; 64; Against Ontenor I (30).28; Against Apatourius (33).12; Against Dionysodorus (56).14; (56).15 (× 2); 16; Against Neaera (59).53; 54; 68; 69; 90.

    162 Funeral Oration (60).24 (× 2).

    163 Against Androtion (22).20.

    164 Olynthiac I (1).21; On the Halonnesus (7).1; On the Treaty with Alexander (17).5; On the Crown (18).42; 71; Against Androtion (22).20; Against Phormio (34).33.

    165 On the Chersonese (8).60; Philippic IIIa (9).26; 32; On the Liberty of the Rhodians (15).19; For the Megalopolitans (16).4; 25; 26 (× 2); 30; On the Embassy (19).51; 80; 183; 186 (× 2); Against Leptines (20).111; 142; Against Meidias (21).29 (× 2); 105; Against Androtion (22).75; Against Timocrates (24).96; 183; Against Aristogeiton I (25).70; 84; 87; 95; Against Aphobus II (28).5; 17; Against Aphobus 3 (29).36; Against Neaera (59).9.

    166 Philippic II (6).15; 20; On the Chersonese (8).65; Philippic IIIa (9).19; 26; Philippic IIIb (10).47; 62; On the Navy Boards (14).32; On the Crown (18).18; 98; Against Aristocrates (23).59; Against Aristogeiton I (25).69; Against Stephanos I (45).53.

    167 Philippic IIIb (10).36; 67.

    168 Against Androtion (22).72; Against Timocrates (24).18.

    169 Introduction 24.3; Olynthiac I (1).7; On the Navy Boards (14).10; On the Embassy (19).298.

    170 Letter 1.2; On the Crown (18).78; Against Meidias (21).109.

    171 Introduction 1.1; 9.1; 17.1; 38.2; 3; 46.3; 52.1; 53.3; 56.1; Olynthiac III (3).18; Philippic I (4).1; On the Peace (5).3; On the Chersonese (8).52; Philippic IIIb (10).55; On the Crown (18).10; 136; 171; 259; On the Embassy (19). 13; 15; 23; 35; 45; 57; 117; 120; Against Meidias (21).206; 221; Against Timocrates (24).12; Against Stephanos I (45).58.

    172 On the Chersonese (8).74; On the Crown (18).170; On the Embassy (19).122; Against Meidias (21).68; 203; Against Polycles (50).2; Against Conon (54).8; Against Neaera (59).34.

    173 On the Embassy (19).84.

    174 Philip’s Letter (12).21; Against Leptines (20).68.

    175 On the Crown (18).129; Against Boeotus I (39).31.

    176 Against Conon (54).29.

    177 On the Embassy (19).287; Against Aristogeiton I (25).75.

    178 Olinthiac II (2).16.

    179 On the Crown (18).16; Against Zenothemis (32).5.

    180 On the Crown (18).310; Against Leochares (44).65; Against Conon (54).7; Funeral Oration (60).4.

    181 This phrase has also other versions, using the following conjunctions: καὶ ἄνω καὶ κάτω (Philippic IIIa (9).36), ἄνω καὶ κάτω (On the Crown (18).111; On the Embassy (19).261; Against Aristocrates (23).178), ἄνω τε καὶ κάτω (Against Aristogeiton I (25).47).

    182 Philippic I (4).41; Against Meidias (21).91; Against Aristogeiton I (25).75 (× 2).

    183 Introduction 30.2; Philippic IIIa (9).41; Against Leochares (44).16; Against Stephanos I (45).80.

    184 Against Aristocrates (23).155.

    185 Against Meidias (21).77; 160; Against Leochares (44).5; Against Leochares (44).6; Against Neaera (59).74.

    186 On the Crown (18).291; On the Embassy (19).336.

    187 Introduction 39.3; For the Megalopolitans (16).23; On the Crown (18).168; On the Crown (18).175; 222; On the Embassy (19).300; Against Leptines (20).63; Against Meidias (21).159; 211; Against Timocrates (24).195; Against Aphobus 3 (29).22; Against Zenothemis (32).10; Erotic Essay (61).6.

    188 Philippic I (4).49; Against Neaeraa (59).38.

    189 On the Crown (18).168; 298; Against Pantaenetus (37).2.

    190 Cf. W. Tatarkiewicz, Historia filozofii [A History of Philosophy], vol. 1, Warszawa 1981, p. 22–23.

    191 For more on Plato’s life see M. Podbielski, Platon [Plato], [in:] Literatura starożytnej Grecji [Literature of Ancient Greece], ed. H. Podbielski, vol. 2: Proza historyczna, krasomówstwo, filozofia i nauka, literatura chrześcijańska [Historical Prose, Oratory, Philosophy and Science, Christian Literature], Lublin 2005, p. 557–565. Cf. also T. Sinko, Zarys historii literatury greckiej [An Outline of the History of Greek Literature], vol. 1, p. 848–852.

    192 Cf. M. Podbielski, Platon [Plato], p. 565–576.

    193 In this work, we do not conduct research concerning the authenticity of particular works of Plato, so we consider all of them, except those whose authenticity has been rejected. The order in which they are listed is not chronological but alphabetical.

    194 This paper is based on the edition of Plato’s collected works in: Platonis opera, ed. I. Burnet, vol. 1–5, Oxonia 1950–1953.

    195 This dialogue in Polish is sometimes called Rzeczpospolita [Commonwealth]; see editorial note of Edyta Kubikowska to Plato, Dialogi [Dialogues], Polish transl. W. Witwicki, vol. 1, Kęty 1999, p. 7.

    196 In addition to the mentioned Platonis opera, ed. I. Burnet edition, when analysing Laws I also used the edition: Platonis Legum libri duodecim, ed. K.F. Hermann, Lipsiae 1884.

    197 For all the dialogues mentioned so far, with the exception of those that have not been translated, the following Polish translations were consulted: Plato, Dialogi [Dialogues], Polish transl. W. Witwicki, vol. 1–2, Kęty 1999. The exceptions are Republic and Laws , whose translations appeared in a separate edition: Platona Państwo z dodatkiem Siedmiu Ksiąg Praw [Plato’s Republic with the addition of SevenBooks of Laws ], Polish transl. W. Witwicki), vol. 1–2, Warszawa 1958.

    198 Apart from the mentioned edition of Platonis opera, ed. I. Burnet, when analysing Letters I also used the edition: Platonis quae feruntur Epistole, ed. K.F. Hermann, Lipsiae 1875. It is worth noting here that Listy i Obrona Sokratesa [Letters and the Apology of Socrates ] are the only works of Plato that are not dialogues; see M. Pąkcińska, Platon [Plato ], [in:] Słownik pisarzy antycznych [Dictionary of Ancient Writers], ed. A. Świderkówna, Warszawa 1990, p. 367.

    199 In the works of this philosopher, we most often find a physical expression: the height of the willow at which Socrates and Phaedros were placed (Phaedros 230b); the heights of the earth on which man moves (Timaeus 44d); literally: the height of the mirror on both sides, i.e. the deformation of the two ends of the mirror (Timaeus 46c); the height of the royal palace in the capital of Atlantis (Critias 116d); the height of the trees in the grove of Poseidon (Critias 117b); the height of the groves lying along the road from Knossos to the temple of Zeus (Laws 1.625c).

    200 War dance (ὄρχησιν τὴν πολεμικὴν), which is performed by jumping high (Laws 7.815a).

    201 In that sense, we meet it in seven places in Plato’s works: Critias 111b; 111d; Laws 3.678c; 3.682b; 3.682c; 6.761b; 6.778c. One cannot find here the metaphorical meaning of ὑψηλός. Maybe only in the Third Book of Laws , where the descent of people from highlands (ἐκ γὰρ τῶν ὑψηλῶν εἰς τὰ πεδία καταβαίνειν) is a sign of their civilisational development (cf. Laws 3.678c). But only the whole speech of Athenian can be thus interpreted as such and not only the adjective ὑψηλός, which in any case means ‘hills, a highland country’. This meaning is also given in dictionaries: see e.g. Słownik grecko-polski [Greek-Polish Dictionary], ed. Z. Abramowiczówna, vol. 4, p. 484.

    202 W. Witwicki translated it as: “jak i w złej doli, kiedy się duchy niektórym działaniom sprzeciwiają, jak by się człowiek na strome szczyty wspinał [“as well as in a bad fate, when spirits oppose certain actions, as if one were climbing steep peaks”]; Platona Państwo z dodatkiem Siedmiu Ksiąg Praw [Plato’s Republic with the addition of Seven Books of Laws ], Polish transl. W. Witwicki, vol. 2, Warszawa 1958, p. 439.

    203 It usually describes physical dimensions in relation to the nouns ὁ λόφος (Laws 3.682b; 3.682c) and of similar meaning ὁ γήλοφος (Critias 111c) and τὸ ὄρος (Laws 3.680b). And then: ὁ τόπος (Timaeus 22d; Critias 118a; Laws 8.848e), τὸ δένδρον (Critias 111c; Laws 1.625b), ἡ πλάτανος (Phaedrus 229a), ὁ χαμίζηλος (Phaedo 89b), τὸ βῆμα (The Republic 10.617d) and τὸ χῶμα (Laws 12.958e). The adjective used in this way does not raise any doubts that its meaning is literal.

    204 Which can be rendered as: “As for the others, it would cause in some, quite improperly, undeserved contempt for these matters, in others, it would lead to haughtiness, vanity and unsupported self-confidence”.

    205 Słownik polsko-grecki [Greek-Polish Dictionary], ed. Z. Abramowiczówna, vol. 4, p. 484.

    206 The Athenian Stranger warned against trying to escape divine justice: οὐδ᾽ ὑψηλὸς γενόμενος εἰς τὸν οὐρανὸν ἀναπτήσῃ (Laws 10.905a). In this sentence, ὑψηλός combines with the verb γίγνομαι. Socrates, walking with Phaedrus, asked: ἥ τε γὰρ πλάτανος αὕτη μάλ᾽ ἀμφιλαφής τε καὶ ὑψηλή. We can notice an ellipse of the verb ἐστί or a similar verb (Phaedrus 230b). Socrates claimed in a longer speech to Crito: καὶ αὐτὴ ἡ τέχνη αὐτῶν θεσπεσία τις καὶ ὑψηλή (Euthydemus 289e). It seems that in the context of the previously used εἶναι, also here the verb ἐστί or similar is left out.

    207 Cf. Słownik polsko-grecki [Greek-Polish Dictionary], ed. Z. Abramowiczówna, vol. 1, p. 258.

    208 W. Witwicki rendered it as: “Więc czy nie zacznie na tym punkcie wysoko zadzierać nosa […]? [Will he not become conceited because of that?]”; Platona Państwo z dodatkiem Siedmiu Ksiąg Praw [Plato’s Republic with the Addition of the Seven Books of Laws ], Polish transl. W. Witwicki, vol. 1, Warszawa 1958, p. 325.

    209 ‘To enter, climb, mount’: the pulpit (Euthydemus 305c, The Apology of Socrates 31c; The Republic 10.617d), the stage (Symposium 194b), upstairs (The Republic 2.365b); ‘board’ the boat (Phaedo 113d).

    210 ‘To ascend, take place’ among the royal dignitaries (First Alcibiades, 123b), ‘to go to’ court (Gorgias 486b; The Apology of Socrates 17d; 33d; 36a; 40b), ‘to go far’ in meditation, literally ‘in words’ (The Republic 4.445c), ‘raise’ the soul to the world of thought (The Republic 7.517a; 7.519d – 2 times).

    211 Cf. “Ci, którzy już zamyślali wyjść na górę, wtedy ich paszcza przepaści wypuścić nie chciała, tylko wydawała ryk, ile razy koś z tych nieuleczalnych zbrodniarzy, albo ktoś, kto jeszcze swej pokuty nie odbył, próbował wyjść na górę” [“Those who were already thinking about going up, the mouth of the chasm did not want to let go, but just made a roar every time someone from these incurable criminals, or someone who had not yet done his penance, tried to ascend”]; Platona Państwo z dodatkiem Siedmiu Ksiąg Praw [Plato’s Republic with the Addition of the Seven Books of Laws ], Polish transl. from Greek by W. Witwicki, vol. 2, Warszawa 1958, p. 89; cf. “they were just, as they fancied, about to return into the upper world, but the mouth, instead of admitting them, gave a roar, whenever any of these incurable sinners or some one who had not been sufficiently punished tried to ascend”.

    212 Cf. “Przeżyły tam dusze wiele różnych strachów, ale ten strach był największy, aby głosu przepaści nie usłyszeć przy wchodzeniu na górę. Najchętniej każdy wchodził, kiedy przepaść milczała” [“Souls experienced there various different fears, but this fear was the greatest not to hear the voice of the chasm when ascending the mountain. Everyone was most eager to enter when the chasm was silent”]; Platona Państwo z dodatkiem Siedmiu Ksiąg Praw [Plato’s Republic with the Addition of the Seven Books of Laws ], Polish transl. W. Witwicki, vol. 2, p. 90; cf. “And of all the many terrors which they had endured, he said that there was none like the terror which each of them felt at that moment, lest they should hear the voice; and when there was silence, one by one they ascended with exceeding joy”.

    213 ‘To raise, take’ a material thing (Laws 6.753c; 11.913b – 3 times; 11.913c; 11.913d; 11.914b; 10.617e – 2 times), ‘to gather’ corpses (The Apology of Socrates 32b; Menexenus 243c; The Republic 10.614b – 2 times), ‘to take’ assets from the property (Epistles 7.346c).

    214 ‘To elect’ someone (Laws 6.759d), ‘to take’ responsibility for work (Laws 11.921a; 11.921b; 11.921d), ‘to win’ friendship (Lysis 219a), ‘to raise hopes’ (Epistles 4.320e), ‘to enter into’ discussion of assumptions (The Republic 7.533c), ‘to incite’ discord (Phaedrus 233c; 243c), ‘to report’ on someone (Laws 9.870d).

    215 Cf. Słownik polsko-grecki [Greek-Polish Dictionary], ed. Z. Abramowiczówna, vol. 1, p. 142.

    216 Cf. “No i Pytia odpowiedziała, że nikt nie jest mądrzejszy [And Pythia answered that no one is wiser]”; Plato, Dialogi [Dialogues], Polish transl. W. Witwicki, vol. 1, p. 558.

    217 “which God has accepted”; Platona Państwo z dodatkiem Siedmiu Ksiąg Praw [Plato’s Republic with the Addition of the Seven Books of Laws ], Polish transl. W. Witwicki, vol. 2, p. 297.

    218 “The one whom god will choose” (own translation)

    219 “those who will explain them with authority will be those whom god will choose” (own translation).

    220 “because god will decide on the riches” (own translation).

    221 ‘To take’ something in hand (The Apology of Socrates 22b; Symposium 185), ‘entertain’ someone (Epistles 7.329d).

    222 ‘To take up, regain’ power (Epistles 8.352c); ‘to take up’ an issue, a topic; ‘to take into account’ (Cratylus 437a; Sophist 232b; 255e; Politicus 261c; Theaetetus 187c; 198d; 203a; Euthydemus 275c; Gorgias 506c; Meno 85d – 2 times; 87e; The Apology of Socrates 19a; Crito 46c; Greater Hippias 288a; Epinomis 980c; 983d; Laws 1.644b; 6.771a; 12.961c; Philebus 34b; 34e; The Republic 6.490d; 8.544b; 9.588b; 10.606e); ‘to translate’ (Critias 113b); ‘to recall’ (Politicus 294d; Phaedo 75e – 2 times; 95e; Timaeus 26a; 26b); ‘to abstain’ (Lysis 210e; Laws 3.701c).

    223 Laches 195c; First Alcibiades 106c; 107a; 107c; 109a; 116d; Lysis 207d; Theages 129b – 3 times; 129c; Charmides 155b; 155c; Epistles 5.322a; 13.360a; Euthydemus 272e – 2 times; Protagoras 310d; 311a; 317e; 319d; 335c – 2 times; 335d; Phaedo 116a; Laws 11.937a; Symposium 219b; 219d; 223b; 223d; The Republic 3.388a; 7.515c; 10.616b.

    224 ‘Upwards, high’ (Cratylus 414a; 423a; Sophist 221a; 221c; Theaetetus 174a; Phaedo 109c; 111e; 112b; 114c; Timaeus 43e; 46c – 2 times; 58b; 62c – 2 times; 62d – 2 times; 63a – 2 times; 63c; 63d; 63e – 2 times; 65e; 85e; Critias 113e; 118a; Gorgias 508e; Laws 5.747a; Parmenides 129c; Philebus 43a; The Republic 3.400b; 9.584d; 9.584e); ‘high’ parts, things (Sophist 236a; Phaedrus 274d; The Republic 9.584d); ‘from top to bottom’ – ἄνω κάτω (Protagoras 361c; The Republic 10.613b). Particularly noteworthy here is the temporal meaning of this adverb ‘before’. (Theaetetus 175b; Epistles 7.338e; Laws 3.699c; The Republic 4.441b; 10.603d). Perhaps the following are connected with this meaning: ἄνω preceded by the plural means ‘ancestors’ (Critias 110b; Laws 9.878a; 11.919e; The Republic 5.461c).

    225 The phrase ἄνω καὶ κάτω, used in the relevant context, means ‘chaos, confusion in action and thinking’ (Hipparchus 228a; 228e; Second Alcibiades 147e; Laches 196b; Cratylus 386e; Sophist 242a; Theaetetus 153d; 195c; Gorgias 481d; 493a; 511a; Protagoras 356d; Phaedo 90c; 96b; Timaeus 43b; Lesser Hippias 376c; Minos 316c; Epinomis 982d; 989a; Ion 541e; Phaedrus 272b; 278d; The Republic 6.508d).

    226 Calling it a child in the two natures of Hermes (cf. Cratylus 408b).

    227 In the fragment devoted to the verb ἀναβαίνω.

    228 Cf. Cratylus 408d; Sophist 220e; 246b; Theaetetus 175d; Epistles 2.310e; Phaedo 101d; 110b; Menexenus 236e; Timaeus 18d; 22e; 53d; 74e; Ion 535e; Critias 112a; 115e; 118d; Laws 3.682b; 4.717b; 6.781d; Philebus 44d; The Republic 5.449b; 7.514b; 7.518b; 10.616b; 10.616e; 10.617b.

    229 Socrates: ἄλλως τε καὶ ὃν νῦν ἐγείρομεν πλήθει ἀμήχανον, which has been translated into Polish in the following way: “Zresztą to zagadnienie, które poruszamy, jest niesłychanie obfite” [“Anyway, the issue we are discussing is extremely abundant”]; Plato, Dialogi [Dialogues], Polish transl. W. Witwicki, vol. 2, p. 389.

    230 Cf. Lysis 204d; The Apology of Socrates 30e – 2 times; 31a; Crito 43b; 44a; Timaeus 46a; Laws 7.808a – 2 times; 10.909a; 12.942b.

    231 Cf. Cratylus 411a; Sophist 266c; Politicus 272d; Timaeus 52b; Ion 532c; 533a; 536b; Laws 7.807e; 7.808a; Phaedrus 245a; The Republic 1.330e.

    232 Cf. Theaetetus 158d; 158c; 184a; Protagoras 310b; Phaedo 71c – 3 times; 71d; Timaeus 85b; Laws 7.791a; 7.800a; 7.808b; 7.808c; 7.809d; 7.819c; 7.823e; Philebus 20b; Symposium 203a; 223c; The Republic 3.390b; 5.476c.

    233 Cf. Theaetetus 149d; 151a; Laws 2.673d; 3.685c; 5.747b; 6.773; 8.843a; 9.856b; The Republic 3.410b; 3.411d; 4.440c; 8.555a; 9.571d; 9.571c; 10.605b.

    234 Cf. Timaeus 70c.

    235 ‘To possess’ goods (Laws 4.716a), ‘to encourage, to incite’ to something (Lesser Hippias 373a; Phaedrus 232a; The Republic 3.416d; 10.608b).

    236 Cf. W. Tatarkiewicz, Historia filozofii [A History of Philosophy], vol. 1, p. 104–105.

    237 The full list of Aristotle’s writings can be found in: H. Podbielski, Arystoteles – życie i dzieło [Aristotle life and work], [in:] Literatura starożytnej Grecji [Literature of Ancient Greece], ed. H. Podbielski, vol. 2: Proza historyczna, krasomówstwo, filozofia i nauka, literatura chrześcijańska [Historical Prose, Oratory, Philosophy and Science, Christian Literature], Lublin 2005, p. 670–671.

    238 The study is based on the original edition of Aristotle’s works: Aristotelis opera omnia graece et latine cum indice absolutissimo, ed. Firmin-Didot, Parisiis 1848–1869. Polish translation consulted: Arystoteles, Dzieła wszystkie [Collected Works], vol. 1–7, Warszawa 2000–2003.

    239 Cf. History of Animals 6.576b; 6.580a; 9.614b; Meteorology 1.347a; 1.350a; On Marvelous Things Heard 833a; 834b; 839a; Parts of animals 2.657b; 4.686b.

    240 Cf. History of Animals 6.559a.6; 9.616a.9; 9.619a.25; 9.619b.4; Meteorology 1.341a.1; 1.347a.35; 1.348a.21; 1.348a.23; 1.350a.2; 1.350a.5; 1.350a.7; 1.350b.22; 1.352b.7; 2.354a.24; 2.354a.28; 2.354a.31; On Marvelous Things Heard 833a.5; 837b.34; 839b.1; On theUniverse 392b.18; Problems 14.909b.5; 25.940a.3; 26.941.39; 26.944b.10; 26.944b.12; 26.944b.18; 26.944b.20; 26.947a.15.

    241 Cf. Movement of animals 713b.11.

    242 Cf. Meteorology 1.352b.27; 2.354a.25; Problems 26.940a.19; 26.940a.20; 26.940a.26; 26.945a.26.

    243 Cf. Eudemian Ethics 3.1230a.

    244 Cf. Rhetoric 2.1393b.

    245 Cf. Arystoteles, Dzieła wszystkie [Collected Works], vol. 6: Polityka, Ekonomika, Retoryka dla Aleksandra, Poetyka, Zachęta do filozofii, Ustrój polityczny Aten, List do Aleksandra Wielkiego,Testament [Politics, Economics,Rhetoric for Alexander, Protrepticus, The Constitution of the Athenians, Letter to Alexander the Great, Τestament], transl., introduction and com. by M. Chigerowa and others, Warszawa 2001, p. 783.

    246 Cf. The Constitution of the Athenians 15.4.

    247 Cf. The Constitution of the Athenians 29.4; 50.2; Eudemian Ethics 1.1217b (× 2); 1.1218a (× 2); 2.1222b (× 2); Metaphysics 1.988b; 1.989a; 1.990b; 1.992b; 2.994b; 3.1000b; 4.1006a; 4.1006b; 4.1007a; 4.1010b; 4.1012b; 5.1017b (× 2); 7.1040a; 11.1062b; 11.1063b; 11.1065a; 12.1071a (× 2); 13.1079a; 13.1082b; 13.1083b; 13.1086b; Nicomachean Ethics 5.1132b.10; 5.1133a.10; 10.1173a.1; Poetics 1460a; Politics 1.1253a; 2.1261a; 2.1261b; 2.1263b; 4.1288b; 5.1301b; 5.1307b; Rhetoric 1.1375a; 1.1376b; 1.1377b; 2.1382b; 2.1391b; 2.1397a; 3.1415a; 3.1418b.

    248 Cf. The Constitution of the Athenians 18.5; 19.1; 25.2; 25.4; 35.3; 35.4; 37.2; 40.2; Nicomachean Ethics 9.1166b.10; Politics 5.1304a; 5.1311a; 5.1311b; 5.1313a; Rhetoric 1.1365a; 1.1376a; 2.1395a.

    249 Cf. Nicomachean Ethics 7.1146b.5.

    250 Cf. Nicomachean Ethics 10.1172b.25.

    251 Cf. The Constitution of the Athenians 16.9; Nicomachean Ethics 3.1114a.15.

    252 Cf. Rhetoric 1.1354b.

    253 Cf. Nicomachean Ethics 1.1095a.10; 3.1115a.1; 10.1174a.10; 10.1176a.30; Poetics 1449b; Politics 8.1339a; Rhetoric 1.1373b.

    254 Cf. Metaphysics 9.1047a; 9.1047b (× 2); Rhetoric 1.1365a.

    255 Cf. Economics 1.1345a.

    256 Cf. Eudemian Ethics 1.1214b; Metaphysics 4.1010b; 4.1011a; 9.1048b.

    257 Cf. Eudemian Ethics 2.1220b; 2.1224a; Metaphysics 11.1065b; 11.1065a; 11.1067a; 11.1067b; Nicomachean Ethics 2.1103a; Politics 2.1262a; 7.1331b.

    258 Cf. Rhetoric 3.1412b.

    259 Cf. Metaphysics 1.992a; 2.994a; 2.994b; 4.1007b; 5.1016a. On the metaphorical meaning of ἄνω in the works of Aristotle, see K. Narecki, Słownik terminów arystotelesowskich [Dictionary of Term Used by Aristotle ], [in:] Arystoteles, Dzieła wszystkie [Collected Works], vol. 7, Warszawa 2003, p. 24.

    260 Cf. Metaphysics 1.990a; Rhetoric 3.1412a.

    261 Cf. Nicomachean Ethics 6.1139b.10; 6.1144a.10; 6.1149b.5.

    262 Cf. Rhetoric 1.1374a.

    263 Cf. Z. Kubiak, Literatura Greków i Rzymian [Literature of Greeks and Romans], Warszawa 2003, p. 131.

    264 Cf. R. Turasiewicz, Początki prozy – logografowie – najwcześniejsi historycy [The Beginnings of Prose – Logographers – Earliest Historians] [in:] Literatura starożytnej Grecji [Literature of Ancient Greece], ed. H. Podbielski, vol. 2: Proza historyczna, krasomówstwo, filozofia i nauka, literatura chrześcijańska [Historical Prose, Oratory, Philosophy and Science, Christian Literature], Lublin 2005, p. 5–9.

    265 Cf. S. Stabryła, Historia literatury starożytnej Grecji i Rzymu. Zarys [History of Literature of Ancient Greece and Rome. Outline], Wrocław–Warszawa–Kraków 2002, p. 82–89.

    266 Extensively on this subject: R. Turasiewicz, Historiografia hellenistyczna [Hellenic Historiography], [in:] Literatura starożytnej Grecji [Literature of Ancient Greece], ed. H. Podbielski, vol. 2: Proza historyczna, krasomówstwo, filozofia i nauka, literatura chrześcijańska [Historical Prose, Oratory, Philosophy and Science, Christian Literature], Lublin 2005, p. 63–68.

    267 Cf. K. Głombiowski, Herodot [Herodotos], [in:] Słownik pisarzy antycznych [Dictionary of Ancient Writers], ed. A. Świderkówna), Warszawa 1990, p. 229–230.

    268 This study is based on the following editions of the original text of Histories : Herodoti historiarum libri IX, ed. G. Dindorfius, C. Müllero, Parisiis 1862; Herodoti historiarum libri IX, ed. H.P. Dietsch, Lipsiae 1887. Polish translation consulted: Herodotus, Dzieje [Histories ], Polish transl. and compilation by S. Hammer, vol. 1–2, Warszawa 1959.

    269 For more on the Ionic dialect in Histories cf. Herodoti historiarum libri IX, ed. G. Dindorfius, C. Müllero, V–XLVII; cf. also T. Sinko, Zarys historii literatury greckiej [An Outline of the History of Greek Literature], vol. 1, p. 685–686. The presence of this dialect will also be observed in the spelling of the terms we are interested in, as we will see later in this work.

    270 Cf. K. Głombiowski, Herodot [Herodotos], p. 229–230.

    271 Cf. Słownik polsko-grecki [Greek-Polish Dictionary], ed. Z. Abramowiczówna, vol. 4, p. 486.

    272 The term used here normally means “forehead” of an animal or human being. In Herodotus’ work, however, it means ‘the wall, the side of a pyramid’; cf. Słownik polsko-grecki [Greek-Polish Dictionary], ed. Z. Abramowiczówna, vol. 3, p. 137–138.

    273 This is a lesser known equivalent of the preposition εἰς.

    274 Sometimes with an ellipse of the verb (probably εἰμί – as we deduce from the context of the previous two passages): this is how the height of the wall around the city of Gelonus (4.108.1) and of the Atlas mountain are described (4.184.4).

    275 Cf. Słownik polsko-grecki [Greek-Polish Dictionary], ed. Z. Abramowiczówna, vol. 1, p. 132.

    276 1.84.5; 1.181.4; 1.191.5; 2.95.1; 3.30.3; 3.74.3; 3.140.1; 3.140.2; 3.151.1; 3.158.1; 4.22.2; 4.172.1; 5.52.6; 5.72.3; 6.24.1; 6.24.2; 6.79.2; 6.84.2; 7.3.1; 7.6.2; 7.6.3; 7.43.1; 7.136.1; 7.137.2; 7.151.1; 7.152.1; 7.218.1 (× 2); 8.32.1; 8.32.2; 8.36.2; 8.53.1; 8.53.3; 8.53.4; 8.54.1; 8.55.2; 9.70.1; 9.113.2.

    277 6.36.1; 6.70.3; 6.103.2 (× 2); 6.103.3; 6.103.4; 6.122.1; 6.125.4; 9.33.2; 9.33.3; 9.64.1.

    278 1.111.1; 1.111.4 (× 2); 1.166.4; 4.71.1; 4.157.3; 5.98.2; 6.115.1; 8.62.2; 9.51.4.

    279 1.119.6; 3.78.2; 5.90.4; 5.91.1; 6.78.1; 9.25.4; 9.46.2; 9.53.1; 9.57.1; 9.74.1.

    280 In the sense of getting up after the intercourse.

    281 Cf. Słownik polsko-grecki [Greek-Polish Dictionary], ed. Z. Abramowiczówna, vol. 2, p. 9.

    282 1.103.2; 1.130.1; 1.142.1; 2.29.2; 2.29.3; 2.95.1; 2.155.1; 4.9.1; 4.62.2.

    283 1.95.3; 1.177.1; 2.24.1; 2.25.1; 2.25.2; 2.26.1; 2.26.2; 2.148.7; 3.10.3; 4.1.2; 5.15.2; 7.20.2; 7.23.3; 7.128.1; 7.173.4; 8.116.1; 8.137.1. Once, even in this way, the inhabitants of the highlands of the Thracian party – ‘highlanders’ – were defined (8.115.4).

    284 Cf. K. Głombiowski, Thukydides, [in:] Słownik pisarzy antycznych [Dictionary of Ancient Writers], ed. A. Świderkówna, Warszawa 1990, p. 458–461.

    285 In this study we rely on the edition of the original text: Thucydidis historiae interim, ed. H.S. Jones, J.E. Powell, Oxford 21942. Consulted Polish translation: Thucydides, Wojna peloponeska, Polish transl. K. Kumaniecki, vol. 1–2, Wrocław 2004; English text also available at: https://www.gutenberg.org/files/7142/7142-h/7142-h.htm [accessed: 20.03.2021].

    286 This title is quoted imprecisely by Stanisław Stabryła: see S. Stabryła, Historia literatury starożytnej Grecji i Rzymu [A history of the Ancient Greek and Roman literature], Wrocław–Warszawa–Kraków 2002, p. 84.

    287 Cf. R. Turasiewicz, Historiografia: Herodot, Thucydides, Ksenofont i historycy IV wieku przed Chr. [Historiography: Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon and Historians of the 4th Century BC], [in:] Literatura starożytnej Grecji [Literature of Ancient Greece], ed. H. Podbielski, vol. 2: Proza historyczna, krasomówstwo, filozofia i nauka, literatura chrześcijańska [Historical Prose, Oratory, Philosophy and Science, Christian Literature], Lublin 2005, p. 22.

    288 We meet it in the following texts: Peloponnesian War 2.4.4; 2.69.2; 3.19.2; 3.22.3 (× 2); 3.23.1; 3.85.3; 4.48.2; 4.110.2; 4.115.2; 5.6.4; 5.7.3; 5.9.3; 6.94.2; 6.96.1; 6.97.2; 7.2.3; 7.4.2; 7.43.2; 7.43.3; 7.44.3; 7.67.2; 8.92.10.

    289 In this sense, we can find it in the following texts: 1.8.1; 1.54.1; 1.54.2; 1.126.12; 2.22.2; 2.79.7; 2.92.4; 3.98.5; 3.104.2; 3.109.2; 3.109.3; 4.44.4; 4.44.6; 4.97.1; 4.99.1; 4.114.2; 5.1.1; 5.74.2; 7.5.3; 7.72.1.

    290 4.32.1; 4.130.4; 6.69.2; 6.89.2; 7.74.1; 7.83.4.

    291 2.25.5; 2.81.8; 3.79.1; 5.64.5; 6.65.2; 7.1.5; 7.4.2; 7.25.4; 7.33.5; 7.43.2; 7.86.2; 8.23.5; 8.27.4.

    292 Cf. 6.90–92.

    293 1.87.2; 1.87.3; 6.41.1; 7.50.3; 8.27.6; 8.45.1; 8.46.2.

    294 1.62.4; 1.126.11; 1.128.1; 1.137.1; 2.68.1; 3.28.2; 3.75.4; 3.75.5; 4.93.1; 4.112.1; 5.58.2.

    295 2.96.1; 2.96.3; 3.7.3; 4.77.2; 4.90.1.

    296 1.8.2; 1.12.3; 1.12.4; 1.105.3; 2.27.1; 2.99.3; 2.99.5; 4.54.3; 5.1.1; 6.2.2; 6.4.1; 6.4.2 (× 2); 6.6.2; 6.94.1; 7.49.2; 8.108.4.

    297 Out of two hundred and six texts containing such terminology, only fourteen have at least in some sense a figurative meaning. That makes just over 6%.

    298 Cf. S. Stabryła, Historia literatury starożytnej Grecji i Rzymu [History of Ancient Greek and Roman Literature], Wrocław–Warszawa–Kraków 2002, p. 86.

    299 Cf. R. Turasiewicz, Historiografia: Herodot, Thucydides, Ksenofont i historycy IV wieku przed Chr. [Historiography: Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon and Historians of the 4th Century BC], [in:] Literatura starożytnej Grecji [Literature of Ancient Greece], ed. H. Podbielski, vol. 2: Proza historyczna, krasomówstwo, filozofia i nauka, literatura chrześcijańska [Historical Prose, Oratory, Philosophy and Science, Christian Literature], Lublin 2005, p. 38–39.

    300 This study is based on the edition with collected works of Xenophon: Xenophon, Opera omnia, ed. E.C. Marchant, vol. 1–5, Oxford 1975–1985. Polish translations consulted are: Xenophon, Wyprawa Cyrusa [The Expedition of Cyrus ], Polish transl. W. Madyda, Warszawa 2003; Xenophon, Historia grecka [Hellenica ], Polish transl. W. Klinger, Wrocław 2004; English translation: Xenophon, Xenophon in Seven Volumes, English transl. C.L. Brownson, London 1930.

    301 Cf. Anabasis 2.4.12; 3.4.7 (× 2); 3.4.9; 3.4.10; 3.4.11; 6.4.3; 6.1.29; Symposium 2.8; On Hunting 2.7.

    302 Cf. Hellenica 3.1.22; 4.5.4; 6.2.29; 7.5.22; Anabasis 1.2.22; 3.4.24; 3.4.25; 5.4.31; 5.6.6; 5.6.7; 6.1.5; Memorabilia 3.8.9; 3.10.1; Symposium 5.6; Oeconomicus 10.2; 18.2; On Hunting 3.2; 3.3; 5.30; 6.8; On Horsemanship 1.3 (× 2); 1.11; 1.16; 12.11; Hipparchikos 8.3; Ways and Means 4.44.

    303 Anabasis 1.1.2; 1.2.22; 1.4.12; 2.5.22; 3.1.1; 3.1.2; 3.4.13; 3.4.25; 3.4.49; 4.1.1; 4.1.7; 4.2.8; 4.2.12; 4.2.16; 4.2.27; 4.6.27; 4.8.13; 4.8.18; 4.8.19; 5.1.1; 5.2.15; 5.2.22; 7.1.1; Cyropaedia 3.1.40; 3.2.4; 6.3.13; 6.4.10; 7.1.7; 7.1.39; 7.1.40; 7.5.22 (× 2); 8.8.3; Hellenica 1.4.4; 1.4.19; 1.5.2; 2.1.14; 2.1.15; 3.1.2; 3.1.6; 3.4.2; 4.1.3; 4.4.11; 4.4.12; 4.5.4 (× 2); 4.8.16; 5.1.10; 5.4.11; 5.4.14; 5.4.52; 5.4.53; 5.4.58; 5.4.59; 6.1.12; 6.4.4; 6.4.25; 6.5.9; 6.5.26 (× 3); 7.1.19; 7.1.33; 7.2.5; 7.2.6 (× 2); 7.2.7; 7.2.8 (× 2); 7.3.1; 7.4.13; 7.4.32; 7.5.11; Hipparchikos 1.12; On Horsemanship 1.4; Oeconomicus 19.18; Symposium 4.23.

    304 Anabasis 1.8.3; 3.4.35; 4.7.24; 7.6.42; 7.7.12; Cyropaedia 3.3.27; 3.3.60; 3.3.68; 4.1.7; 5.5.37; 6.4.4; 6.4.9; 7.1.1; 7.1.3; 7.1.18; 7.1.39; 8.3.32; Hellenica 4.1.39; 5.4.39; 5.4.40; 6.4.32; Hipparchikos 1.4; 3.4; 6.5; On Horsemanship 1.1; 1.4; 3.3; 3.4; 3.9; 6.6; 6.16 (× 3); 7.1; (× 3); 7.2; 7.4; 8.5; 8.7 (× 2); 9.3 (× 2); 9.7; Oeconomicus 11.17.

    305 Anabasis 6.1.14; Hellenica 3.4.4; 6.2.26.

    306 Hellenica 1.7.14; 1.7.16 (× 2).

    307 Anabasis 4.1.19; 5.7.30; 6.4.9; Cyropaedia 7.3.4; Hellenica 2.4.7; 3.5.22; 3.5.23; 3.5.24; 3.5.25; 4.5.8; 6.4.14; 6.4.15; 7.4.25.

    308 Anabasis 5.7.21; 7.3.22; Cyropaedia 2.3.17; 7.5.12; 8.3.27; 8.5.4; 8.8.20; On Hunting 5.17; 5.24; 6.26; 7.11; 9.5; Oeconomicus 20.11.

    309 Hellenica 1.7.4; 1.7.9; 1.7.11; 1.7.17 (× 2); 1.7.29; 1.7.31; 2.3.32; 2.3.35 (× 2); 6.4.13.

    310 Anabasis 5.7.27; Hellenica 6.3.5; On Hunting 12.13.

    311 Cyropaedia 1.1.1.

    312 Hellenica 3.5.23.

    313 Symposium 4.36.

    314 Anabasis 5.2.32; 6.4.26; Hellenica 2.2.8; 2.4.6; 2.4.19; 3.1.19.

    315 Anabasis 6.5.1; 7.1.41; Cyropaedia 2.1.19; Hellenica 1.5.14; 5.1.26; 5.3.5; 7.2.21; 7.5.22; Hiero 2.15; On Horsemanship 3.5; 8.7; 10.9; On Hunting 6.17; 7.10; 10.20.

    316 Anabasis 1.10.6; 7.3.36; Cyropaedia 1.4.19; 1.5.14; 7.1.29; Hellenica 2.1.3; 4.4.13; 4.7.3; 4.8.11; 4.8.21; Agesilaus 1.16.

    317 Anabasis 4.7.23; Cyropaedia 3.2.1; 5.4.17.

    318 Hellenica 6.4.37.

    319 Hellenica 3.2.29; 4.8.11; 5.4.63.

    320 Hellenica 1.1.4; 7.4.26.

    321 Anabasis 1.3.13; 1.3.16; 1.5.3; 1.6.10; 3.1.15; 3.1.47; 3.2.1; 3.2.4; 3.2.7; 3.2.34; 3.3.1; 4.1.5; 4.4.12 (× 2); 5.4.8; 4.5.9; 4.5.19; 4.5.21; 4.8.21; 5.1.2; 5.1.3; 5.1.5; 5.5.13; 5.6.3; 5.6.25; 5.6.27; 5.6.28; 5.7.34; 5.8.12; 5.8.14; 5.8.26; 6.1.5; 6.1.7; 6.1.11; 6.1.25; 6.1.30; 6.2.4; 6.4.12; 6.4.18; 6.6.11; 6.6.17; 7.3.3; 7.3.28; 7.3.29; 7.3.32; 7.3.33; 7.3.34; 7.6.8; 7.6.10; 7.6.39; 7.6.40; Cyropaedia 1.3.10; 1.6.39; 2.3.4; 2.3.5; 2.3.7; 2.3.16; 5.1.5 (× 2); 5.2.14; 5.2.20; 5.4.4; 6.1.19; 6.2.21; 7.2.2; 7.5.12; 7.5.48; 7.5.55; 8.1.1; 8.1.6; Hellenica 1.6.12; 1.7.7; 2.3.24; 2.3.35; 2.4.9; 2.4.42; 4.1.12; 4.5.18; 5.2.23; 5.2.30; 6.5.37; 6.5.38; Memorabilia 1.4.11; On Horsemanship 5.5; On Hunting 5.32; 6.10; 6.23; 6.25; 10.7; 10.15; Symposium 2.21.

    322 Anabasis 3.4.1; 4.4.11; 4.4.12; 6.5.2; 7.4.6; Cyropaedia 1.2.10; 1.4.17; 5.2.1; 5.3.44; 8.8.20; Hellenica 2.4.6; 5.4.28; 7.1.16; 7.2.20; Memorabilia 2.1.3; Hipparchikos 7.12; Oeconomicus 3.7; 11.4; Symposium 9.3; 9.5.

    323 Cf. E. Zwolski, Asklepios, [in:] Encyklopedia Katolicka, vol. 1, ed. F. Gryglewicz, R. Łukaszczyk, Z. Sułkowski, Lublin 1985, col. 999–1000.

    324 Hellenica 1.6.21; On Horsemanship 3.6; 9.10 (× 2); 10.15; Oeconomicus 5.4.

    325 Anabasis 4.6.22; 5.7.10; Cyropaedia 1.4.20; 1.6.35; 4.5.7; 7.5.20; Hiero 1.6; On Horsemanship 1.9; On Hunting 5.11; Symposium 2.24; 3.1.

    326 Hipparchikos 1.19; Ways and Means 4.41.

    327 Anabasis 1.7.15; 3.4.17; 4.1.7; 4.2.1; 4.2.8; 4.3.3; 4.3.5; 4.3.21 (× 2); 4.3.23 (× 2); 4.3.25; 4.6.26; 4.8.28; 5.4.25; Cyropaedia 1.3.4; 3.2.5; 3.2.6; 3.2.10; 7.1.23; 7.3.15; 7.5.11; Hellenica 2.4.11; 3.5.20; 4.4.11; 4.8.35; 5.1.28; 5.2.5; 7.4.16; On Horsemanship 1.2; 5.4; 5.5; 10.2; 10.3; 10.4; 10.15; Oeconomicus 19.10; 19.13; 19.14; Symposium 2.20.

    328 Anabasis 1.2.1; 3.1.8; 5.2.3; 5.4.25; 7.1.28; 7.3.16; 7.5.9; 7.7.3; Cyropaedia 7.1.45; Hellenica 4.8.17.

    329 Anabasis 4.7.12; 5.2.23; Cyropaedia 5.1.6; Hellenica 6.4.22; On Horsemanship 5.4; 7.7; On Hunting 4.1; 4.8; 5.15; 5.30 (× 2); 9.14; 9.16.

    330 Anabasis 7.7.2.

    331 The verb form ἐπιμελοίμην, is optativus praesentis activi from ἐπιμελέομαι.

    332 On Horsemanship 12.6; On Hunting 5.19; 6.7.

    333 Memorabilia 3.5.3; On Hunting 12.12.

    334 Anabasis 6.1.21; 5.5.41.

    335 Anabasis 7.7.25; 1.6.21; 4.2.4; 8.1.21; Memorabilia 1.2.25; Oeconomicus 14.9.

    336 Memorabilia 1.2.9.

    337 It constitutes almost 3,8 % of the occurrence of the terms under investigation.

    338 Cf. K. Głombiowski, Polybios, [in:] Słownik pisarzy antycznych [Dictionary of Ancient Writers], ed. A. Świderkówna), Warszawa 1990, p. 380–381.

    339 This study is based on the following editions of the original text: Polybii et Appiani quae supersunt. Graece et latine cum indicibus, ed. A. Firmin-Didot, vol. 1–2, Parisiis 1839; Polybii Historia, ed. L. Dindorfius, Lipsiae 1867. The Polish translation consulted: Polibius, Dzieje [The Histories ], Wrocław 2005; The English translation quoted after: The Histories of Polybius , English transl. E.S. Shuckburgh, London 1889.

    340 Cf. T. Sinko, Zarys historii literatury greckiej [An Outline of the History of Greek Literature], vol. 2, p. 133.

    341 This work was mentioned by Polybius himself in The Histories 2.40.2.

    342 Cf. K. Głombiowski, Polybios, p. 381.

    343 Literally: ‘filled with’.

    344 4.78.9; 5.27.3; 5.76.4; 6.39.5; 7.17.4; 8.18.11; 9.19.7; 10.4.6; 10.11.5; 10.14.13; 11.16.2; 15.30.6; 16.25.5; 16.27.4; 21.15.9; 21.42.6; 34.10.16.

    345 6.53.2; 15.25.4; 30.4.4; 30.22.11.

    346 It is proved by the function of the Acropolis in Athens.

    347 1.84.7; 2.21.5; 2.60.2; 4.23.1; 4.33.5; 4.35.5; 4.53.2; 13.6.7; 15.21.2; 23.10.8; 23.10.15; 23.12.3; 31.11.1; 32.4.1; 32.5.6; 39.6.5.

    348 Usually it denotes a ‘gathering’ of armed forces; see 1.26.5; 1.29.10; 1.30.2; 1.32.8; 1.36.12; 1.40.1; 1.60.4; 2.1.6; 2.26.3; 2.26.8; 2.27.5; 2.31.4; 2.34.3; 2.34.6; 2.54.5; 2.65.1; 3.35.7; 3.41.8; 3.47.1; 3.50.8; 3.51.6; 3.65.3; 3.68.13; 3.77.1; 3.93.10; 3.102.6; 3.110.5; 4.36.4; 4.61.2; 4.62.1; 4.63.4; 4.67.6; 4.68.4; 4.75.4; 4.80.8; 4.80.16; 5.5.11; 5.20.6; 5.22.9; 5.61.8; 5.68.9; 5.70.1; 5.70.3; 5.73.5; 5.76.2; 8.7.12; 10.9.6; 10.31.7; 10.32.2; 10.35.7; 10.37.6; 10.42.4; 10.49.2; 11.21.1; 14.4.1; 14.4.4; 14.10.3; 16.36.4; 18.24.1; 30.9.8.

    349 In one case, it means ‘gaining’ authority, power – 3.8.2.

    350 Cf. Słownik polsko-grecki [Greek-Polish Dictionary], ed. Z. Abramowiczówna, vol. 1, p. 525.

    351 1.56.4; 4.67.1; 5.46.5; 5.55.4; 5.97.3; 16.39.1.

    352 3.6.10; 5.40.5; 5.40.7; 5.41.1; 5.48.12; 5.54.13; 5.55.3; 11.34.14 (× 2); 15.26.10.

    353 Name from the same core as ἐπαίρω.

    354 Also with a participle, which by its nature behaves like an adjective in a sentence.

    355 Cf. Słownik polsko-grecki [Greek-Polish Dictionary], ed. Z. Abramowiczówna, vol. 2, p. 193.

    356 The literal meaning of this noun is: ‘a total change, sudden change, breakthrough, turn in action’; cf. Słownik polsko-grecki [Greek-Polish Dictionary], ed. Z. Abramowiczówna, vol. 3, p. 505.

    357 Perfectum passive participle from συμβαίνω: ‘to happen’.

    358 Adjective from προτεραῖος: ‘previous, preceding’.

    359 2.45.2; 3.34.7; 5.23.4; 5.45.2; 10.41.1; 11.28.1; 16.6.9; 31.20.5.

    360 1.20.1; 1.29.4; 1.40.4; 1.82.11; 3.72.2; 4.48.11; 5.46.8; 5.55.1; 5.73.8; 11.15.6.

    361 The Messenian Acropolis of Messengers, ascended by Darius, was probably also such a place (Polybius, The Histories 7.12.1).

    362 It was also used by Euripides, but the wording was different (The Trojan Women 612).

    363 After LXX 1950–1953: ἐταπείνωσας τὸ ὑψηλὸν καὶ τὸ ταπεινὸν ὕψωσας.